Erection  and  Inspection 

of  Iron  and  Steel 

Constructions 

WRITTEN   FOR   THE   USE   OF 

ARCHITECTS,  ENGINEERS  AND  BUILDERS  AND  FOR 
CIVIL  SERVICE  CANDIDATES  FOR  THE  POSI- 
TION OF  INSPECTOR  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 


By  L.  M.  BERNFELD,  C.  E. 
v\ 

Former  Inspector  of  Iron  and  Steel  Construction  for  the 
Bureau  of  Buildings,  New  York  City. 


PRICE,  $2.00 


PUBLISHED      BY 

THE     CHIEF    PUBLISHING     COMPANY 
NEW     YORK 

1913 


Copyright  1913 

BY  L.   M.  BKRNFKIvD 

NEW    YORK 


mj>  motfjer 


to  tofjoge  untireb  bebotion  3f  lavjjelp  otoe 
tpfjatelier  little  3  map  possess  in  ebu= 
cation,  feinbnesig  anb  intellectual  am= 
Ijition,  tfjis;  fcoofe  is;  mos(t  affectionately 
bebicateb. 


CONTENTS 


PART  ONE. 

CHAPTER  I. — Definitions  and   General   Introduction. 

Stresses  and  strains.  Elastic  limit  and  ultimate  strength.  Modulus 
of  elasticity.  Factors  of  safety.  Working  unit  stresses.  Coefficient 
of  linear  expansion. 

CHAPTER  II. — Practical  Problems  on  Stresses  and  Strains. 

Table  of  properties  of  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel.  Thirty- 
one  problems  with  answers  or  completely  solved. 

CHAPTER  III.— The  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

CAST  IRON.— Definition.  Manufacture.  The  blast  furnace.  Classi- 
fication. Properties.  Fracture  of  good  and  poor  cast  iron.  Effects 
of  carbon,  manganese,  phosphorus,  silicon  and  sulphur.  Common 
defects  in  cast  iron.  Blowholes,  honeycomb,  cavities,  shrinkage,  warp- 
ing, cold  shuts,  surface  defects.  Inspection  of  cast  iron.  Laboratory. 
tosts.  Shop  inspection.  Shop  inspection  of  cast  iron  water  pipes. 
Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  cast  iron. 

WROUGHT  IRON.— Definition.  Manufacture.  The  puddling  process. 
Properties.  Effects  of  cold  rolling,  annealing  and  impurities.  Frac- 
tures of  good  and  bad  wrought  iron.  Cold  short  and  red  short  iron. 
Common  defects  in  wrought  iron.  Inspection  of  wrought  iron.  Lab- 
oratory tests.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  wrought  iron. 
STEEL. — Definition.  Manufacture.  The  Crucible  process.  The  Open 
Tic-art h  process.  The  Bessemer  process.  Properties.  High,  'medium 
and  low  carbon  steel.  Effects  of  carbon,  manganese,  phosphorus,  sili- 
con and  sulphur.  Fracture  of  good  and  bad  steel.  Nickel  steel. 
Cast,  steel.  Common  defects  in  steel.  Blow  holes,  pipes,  burns, 
cracks,  laps,  seams,  stars,  cobbles.  Inspection  of  steel.  Laboratory 
tests.  Tensile  test.  Cold  bending.  Hot  bending.  Drifting,  harden- 
ing, forging,  welding  and  quenching  tests. 

CHAPTER  IV.— Shop  and  Mill  Inspection  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

Shop  operations.  Straightening,  punching,  reaming,  riveting,  facing, 
boring,  fitting  up.  painting.  Marking.  Special  operations  and  their 
effects  upon  iron  and  steel.  Heating.  Welding.  Forging.  Harden- 
ing. Tempering.  Annealing.  Punching  and  Shearing.  Upsetting. 
Caulking. 

CHAPTER  V.— Rivetitio. 

Definition.  Material.  Manufacture.  Length  of  rivets.  Form  of 
rivets.  Fitting  connections.  Drift  pin  and  drifting.  Effects  of 
drifting.  Riveters  and  their  output.  Tools  used  in  riveting.  Dolly 
bar.  snap,  buster.  Steamboat  ratchet.  Heating  rivets.  Rules  for 
good  riveting.  Hand  riveting.  Machine  riveting.  Machine  vs.  hand 
riveting.  Shop  and  field  rivets.  Rivets  vs.  bolts.  Riveting  column 
splices.  Specifications.  Deceitful  work  and  its  detection.  Testing 
rivets.  Loose  rivets  and  defective  rivets. 

CHAPTER  VI.— Specifications. 

General  outline.  Specifications  regulating  quality,  shopwork.  erec- 
tion and  inspection.  Manufacturer's  Standard  specifications.  Com- 
plete specifications  for  a  loft  building. 

CHAPTER  VII. — Field  Inspection  of  Minor  Structures. 

Work  of  iron  inspectors  in  the  field.  Inspection  of  store  front 
alterations.  Inspection  before  setting.  Wrought  iron  beams.  Sec- 
ond hand  material.  Separators.  Common  defects  and  their  results. 
Strapping  of  iron  work.  Defective  strapping.  Templates.  Size  of 
templates  for  steel  beams.  Defective  templates.  Wall  anchors. 
Store  front  alterati- us  involving  columns.  Common  defects  and  vio- 
lations of  the  law. 

CHAPTER   VIII.— Hoisting  Iron  Work  in   the   Field. 

Definitions.  Cranes  and  Derricks.  Shear-poles.  Setting  derricks. 
Power  for  derricks.  Stresses  in  derricks. 


CHAPTER  IX.— Iron  in  Retaining  Walls  and  Footings. 

Three  kinds  of  retaining  walls.  Piers  for  columns.  Bearing  capac- 
ity. Inspection  of  piers.  Piers  in  caissons.  Grillage.  Bolting  grill- 
age beams.  Setting  and  grouting. 

CHAPTER  X.— Cast  Iron  Bases  and  Their  Inspection. 

Method  of  testing  in  the  field.  Repeated  inspections.  Setting  cast 
iron  bases. 

CHAPTER  XL— Cast  Iron  and  Steel  Columns. 

CAST  IRON  COLUMNS.  Eccentricity.  Cracked  columns.  Deceitful 
work.  Correct  remedies.  Honeycomb  and  sand  holes.  Their  detec- 
tion. Milling.  Use  of  shims.  Painting.  Bolting,  Plumbing  up 
STEEL  COLUMNS.— Lengths,  Temporary  bolting.  Erection  and 
temporary  bracing.  Riveting.  Milling.  Incorrect  lengths  and  reme- 
dies for  same. 

CHAPTER  XII.— Beams  and   Girders. 

Their  uses.  •  Wall  beams.  Floor  beams.  Tie  beams.  Struts.  Con- 
nections. Connections  of  beams  to.  steel  columns.  Connections  of 
beams  to  cast  iron  columns. 

CHAPTER  XIII.— Sidewalk  Beams. 

Uses.  Loading.  Framing.  Defective  work.  Incorrect  elevation. 
Slope.  Wrong  setting.  Anchors  and  plates.  Vault  framing.  Old 
vaults.  Requirements  of  City  ordinances.  Hoist  guides. 

CHAPTER  XIV.— Stairways  and  Fire  Escapes. 

Erection  and  inspection  of  stairways.  Definitions.  Outside  fire 
escapes.  Buildings  requiring  fire  escapes.  Supervision  by  the 
Bureau  of  Buildings.  Regulations  of  the  Bureau  of  Fire  Preven- 
tion for  construction  of  fire  escapes.  Location.  Balconies.  Railings. 
Stairways,  Brackets,  Drop  ladders.  Goose  neck  ladders.  Scuttle 
ladders.  Painting. 

CHAPTER  XV.— Roof  Tanks. 

.  Uses.  House  tanks.  Gravity  tanks.  Pressure  tanks.  Location. 
Beams  supporting  tanks.  Capacity  of  tanks.  Tank  towers  and 
bolting.  Wind  braces  and  anchorage.  Saddles. 

PART  TWO. 

CHAPTER  XVI.— Permit  to  Build. 

How  to  obtain  a  permit.  Plans  and  specifications.  Permits  for  new 
buildings.  Permits  for  alterations.  Slip  applications.  Approval  of 
plans.  Complete  application  for  erection  of  brick  buildings  with 
over  sixty  questions  fully  answered. 

CHAPTER   XVIL— The.  Building  Code. 

List  of  sections  relating  to  iron  work.  Full  text  of  sections  of  the 
Code  relating  to  iron  and  steel  specifications,  erection  and  inspection. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.— Building  Code  Index. 

For  a  quick  reference  to  sections  relating  to  iron  work. 

CHAPTER  XIX.— Special  Regulations  of  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 

Projections  beyond  building  line.  Ornamental  columns,  steps,  mould- 
ings, rustications,  marquises  and  awnings.  Electric  signs.  Moving 
picture  booths. 

CHAPTER    XX.— Extracts    From    the    State    Labor    Laws    and    the 
Sanitary  Code. 

Relating  to  construction  of  iron  and  steel  work.  Inspection  of  scaf- 
folding, ropes,  blocks,  pulleys  and  tackles.  Accidents.  Penalties. 
Insecure  scaffolding.  Planking.  The  Sanitary  code.  Malfeasance 
and  Nonfeasance. 

CHAPTER  XXL— Extracts  From  the  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the 
Bureau   of  Buildings. 

Relative  to  Iron  Inspectors.  Hours  of  duty.  Violations  of  Law. 
Reports.  Complaints.  Inspections.  Use  of  official  badge; 

CHAPTER  XXIL— Reports. 

General  remarks.  Daily  journal  reports.  Reports  on  violations  of 
law.  Reports  in  full  form.  Digests  of  reports  on  violations  of 


Labor  Laws.  Digests  of  over  fifty  reports  on  violations  of  provisions 
of  the  laws  relating  to  iron  work.  Special  reports  in  full  form. 
Report  011  complaint.  Report  on  encumbering  fire  exit.  Dismissing 
a  violation.  Report  on  working  without  a  permit.  Report  for  dis- 
missal of  a  violation.  Report  on  defective  ladders.  Report  on  dan- 
gerous construction.  Report  on  defective  work  about  to  be  covered 
up.  Final  report  of  completion  of  work.  Monthly  report  of  progress 
of  steel  work  on  an  important  building. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. — Questions  and  Answers. 

For  previous   Civil   Service  examinations   for   Inspector   of   Iron   and 

Steel  construction. 

First  paper  questions :     Technical.     Arithmetic. 

Second  paper  questions :     Technical.     Arithmetic.     Report. 

First  paper   answers :     Technical.     Arithmetic. 

Second  paper  answers :     Technical.     Arithmetic.     Report. 

PART  THREE. 

CHAPTER  XXIV.— Explanation  of  Tables. 

Wire  and  sheet  metal  gauges.     Determining  gauges. 
Shearing  and  bearing  value  of  rivets.     Length  of  rivets. 
Properties    of   American    Standard    and    Special    beams.      Definitions. 
Moment  of  Inertia.     Radius  of  Gyration:     Section  Modulus. 
Properties  of  American   Standard   and   Special   channels. 
Properties  of  Standard  and  Special  Angles. 

Properties  of  Bethlehem  I  Beams  and  Bethlehem  Girder  Beams. 
Comparison  with  standard  beams. 

Properties  of  Bethlehem  H  Columns.    Advantages  and  disadvantages. 
Safe  loads  for  beams,  channels  and  angles.     Uniform  loads.     Concen- 
trated loads.     Design  of  beams. 
Safe  loads  on  channels  set  flatwise. 

Safe  loads  for  Cast  Iron  Columns.  Design  of  cast  iron  columns. 
Design  of  steel  columns. 

Safe   loads   for   standard   shapes   used   as   struts.      Maximum    unsup- 
ported length  for  various  shapes. 
Cylindrical   tanks   and   their   capacity. 

Conversion  tables.  Decimals  of  an  inch  for  each  1-32.  Decimals 
of  a  foot  for  each  1-16. 

CHAPTER  XXV.— Tables. 

Twenty  ready  reference  tables  for  field  use. 

INDEX. 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  three  fold  : 

First :  To  present  before  practical  builders  some  essen- 
tial technical  facts,  necessary  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
qualities  and  defects  of  Iron  and  Steel  as  used  in  construction 
work. 

Second  :  To  form  a  ready  reference  book  for  Architects, 
Engineers  and  Inspectors,  for  use  in  the  field,  in  figuring  the 
strength  of  beams,  columns,  and  connections. 

Third  :  It  will  prove  a  valuable  aid  to  students  in  engi- 
neering and  to  candidates  for  Civil  Service  Examinations  for 
the  position  of  Inspector  of  Iron  and  Steel  Constructions. 

Some  of  the  information  following  is  extracted  from  ex- 
cellent volumes  on  architecture,  metallurgy,  fabrication,  de- 
signing, erection  and  superintendence.  Much  of  the  material, 
however,  is  entirely  original,  being  based  upon  results  of  ac- 
tual inspections  made  by  the  author  in  his  former  capacity. 

Lupescu  M.  Bernfeld. 
New  York  City,  December,  1912. 


Erection  and  Inspection  of  Iron 
and  Steel  Constructions 


PART     I 


CHAPTER  I. 
Definitions  and  General  Introduction. 

STRESSES.  Place  a  brick  on  end  and  rest  on  top  of  the 
brick  a  weight  of  200  pounds.  (Fig.  i)  This  weight  causes  a 
downward  pressure  against  the  brick.  In  the  same  time  there 
is  developed  in  the  brick  an  internal  resistance  of  200  tbs. 
acting  against  the  weight  and  keeping  the  same  in  equili- 
brium ;  otherwise  the  weight  would  crush  the  brick  and  move 
downward.  The  weight  represents  an  external  force  acting 
upon  the  brick.  The  internal  resistance  developed  in  the 
brick  by  this  weight  is  called  a  "stress."  We  can  therefore 
say,  that :  "A  stress  is  an  internal  resistance  which  balances 
an  external  force." 

An  exterior  force  acting  on  a  body  tends  to  produce  a 
deformation  or  change  in  the  shape  of  the  body.  We  call 
"Strain  or  deformation"  the  change  in  shape  or  the  distortion 
caused  in  a  body  by  an  external  force  acting  upon  it. 

Three  kinds  of  simple  or  direct  stresses  may  be  produced 
by  external  forces ;  these  are :  Tension,  caused  by  forces 
stretching  or  tending  to  pull  a  body  apart.  Compression, 
caused  by  forces  tending  to  push  together  or  shorten  a  body. 
Shear,  caused  by  forces  tending  to  cut  across. 

In  all  cases  unit  stress  is  the  stress  per  unit* area.  For 
instance: 

If  a  brick  2x4x8%  in.  stands  on  one  end  and  a  weight  of 
240  pounds  is- rested  on  it,  the  unit  compressive  stress  equals 
30  pounds  per  sq.  in. 

In  the  same  way,  if  a  weight  of  2,000  pounds  is  hung 
from  a  rope  having  a  cross-section  of  J/£  sq.  in.,  the  unit  ten- 
sile stress  equals  2,000-^-^/2=4,000  pounds  per  sq.  in. 

Consider  two  plates  riveted  together,  as  in  Fig.  2.  When 
the  plates  are  in  tension,  they  tend  to  shear  the  rivet  or  cut  it 
across  the  area  between  the  two  plates.  Let  the  tension  in 
each  plate  be  2,209  ^s-  The  cross-sectional  area  of  a  Y^  in. 
rivet  is  3. i4Xdiam. =3. 14X34=4418  square  ins.  The  total 
shear  tending  to  cut  the  rivet  across  is  2,209  pounds.  This 
shear  divided  by  the  cross-section  resisting  it  is  the  unit  shear. 
We  therefore  have  :  Unit  shear =2  209-^-. 44 18=5,000  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Elastic  Limit  and  Ultimate  Strength.  When  a  gradual- 
ly increasing  force  is  applied  to  a  bar,  the  deformation  of  the 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


bar  increases  in  proportion  to  the  force  within  certain  limits. 
For  instance:  If  a  steel  bar  one  sq.  in.  in  cross-section  and 
100  in.  long  is  subjected  to  a  gradually  increasing  tensile  force, 
it  elongates  as  shown  in  this  table : 

with  a  tension  of  6000  Ibs.  the  bar  elongates  .02  in. 
12000  ' 
18000  3 
24000  ' 
30000  " 
36000  " 

Notice  that  the  elongation  was  so  far  proportional  with  the 
stress ;  when  the  stress  was  doubled,  the   deformation  also 


.04 
.06 
.08 
.10 

.12 


W-200  Ibs 


200 


200 


aoo  ibs. 

Fig.    1. 

doubled.  However,  with  a  tension  of  42,000  lt>s.  the  bar 
elongates  .15  in.  or  .16  in.,  or  in  other  words,  the  deformation 
increases  faster  than  the  force  applied. 

Elastic  Limit  is  that  unit  stress  at  which  the  deformation 
begins  to  increase  in  a  faster  ratio  than  the  stress. 

When  a  body  is  stressed  below  the  elastic  limit,  upon 
removing  the  force,  the  body  will  spring  back  to  its  original 
shape  and  length.  When  a  body  is  stressed  above  the  elastic 
limit,  upon  removing  the  force  the  body  does  not  acquire  its 
original  shape  and  length,  but  it  remains  permanently  de- 


IRON  AND   STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


formed  or  it  acquires  a  permanent  Set.  This  shows  that 
stressing  a  body  beyond  its  elastic  limit  is  injurious  to  the 
elasticity  and  strength  of  the  body  and  should  never  be  al- 
lowed in  practice. 

Returning  to  the  above  illustration,  if  the  tensile  force  is 


Fig.  2 — Single  Shear. 


Fig.     3 — Double     Shear. 


increased  beyond  42,000  Ibs.,  the  bar  will  elongate  more  and 
more  until  finally  rupture  of  the  bar  takes  place. 

Ultimate  strength  is  the  unit  stress  which  occurs  just  be- 
fore rupture,  and  it  is  the  highest  unit  stress  that  a  bar  can 
bear. 

The  ultimate  strength  varies  with  different  materials, 
and  is  from  two  to  four  times  the  elastic  limit.  For  some 
materials  the  ultimate  strength  is  higher  in  compression  than 
in  tension. 

Unit  strain  or  unit  deformation  is  the  deformation  per 
unit  length.  For  instance,  in  the  above  table,  with  a  stress 
of  30,000  Ibs.  the  total  elongation  in  100  in.  was  .10  in.  and  the 
unit  strain  or  elongation  per  inch  of  length  of  the  bar  was 
.io-^-ioo=.ooi  in.  Since  up  to  the  elastic  limit  the  deforma- 
tion is  nearly  uniform  throughout  the  bar,  the  elongation  in 
any  portion  of  the  bar,  i.  e.,  in  8  in.  will  equal  8X.ooi  =  .oo8  in. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity  is  a  number  which  results  by  divid- 
ing unit  stress  by  unit  strain  and  is  a  constant  number  for 
stresses  below  the  elastic  limit.  For  instance,  in  the  last 
table  with  6,000  Ibs.,  per  sq.  in.  of  bar  area  or  with  a  unit 


4  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

stress  of  6,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  the  unit  elongation  was  .0002  in. 
and  the  modulus  of  elasticity  for  this  bar  is  equal  to  6,ooo-f- 
.0002=30,000,000. 

With  a  unit  stress  of  12,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  the  unit 
elongation  =  .0004  in.  and  this  gives  a  modulus  of  elasticity 
equal  to  12000 ^-.0004 =30  mil.  This  shows  that  the  modulus 
of  elasticity  is  constant  below  the  elastic  limit.  The  modulus 
of  elasticity  is  used  in  figuring  out  deformations  when  the 
stresses  are  given  and  vice-versa. 

Factor  of  safety  is  the  number  obtained  by  dividing  the 
ultimate  unit  strength  by  the  actual  unit  stress.  For  instance : 
A  one  inch  square  steel  bar  supports  in  tension  a  load  of  5>oo° 
Ibs..  If  the  ultimate  strength  or  breaking  load  is  65,000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in.  then  the  factor  of  safety  =65000^5000=13. 

The  factors  of  safety  must  be  greater  for  varying  loads 
than  for  steady  loads.  In  table  on  page  5  usual  factors  of 
safety  are  given  for  steady  loads  such  as  in  buildings ;  for 
varying  stresses  as  in  bridges  and  for  shock  as  in  machinery. 

Working  Unit  Stress  is  the  ultimate  strength  divided 
by  the  factor  of  safety.  For  instance :  Let  four  be  the  factor 
of  safety  for  steel  fixed  by  law  or  by  specifications.  If  the  ulti- 
mate strength  in  tension  is  65,000,  the  working  or  allowable 
unit  stress  equals  65000-^4=16250  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  A  flat  bar 
2  in.  X  i  in.  section  for  instance,  will  not  be  loaded  in  tension 
with  more  than  2X16250=32500  tbs. 

The  working  unit  stresses  are  higher  for  dead  loads  than 
for  variable  or  moving  loads  or  for  impact.  The  working 
stress  must  always  be  considerably  lower  than  the  elastic 
limit  to  prevent  injury  to  the  material  through  over-straining. 

Coefficient  of  linear  expansion  is  the  increase  per  unit 
length  of  a  bar  when  the  temperature  of  the  bar  is  increased 
by  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  For  instance,  a  steel  bar  a  foot  long 
at  40°  F.  becomes  1.0000065  ft.  at  41°  F.  The  increase  per 
degree  of  a  unit  length  is  therefore  .0000065  f°r  steel.  This 
number  is  the  coefficient  of  linear  expansion  for  steel. 

The  definitions  given  in  this  chapter  are  of  great  im- 
portance and  the  reader  is  advised  to  thoroughly  master  them 
before  proceeding  any  further. 


CHAPTER  II. 


Practical  Problems  on  Stresses  and  Strains. 


To  further  illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  various  terms 
defined  so  far  and  the  relations  existing  between  them,  sev- 
eral practical  problems  are  here  given.  In  all  problems  that 
follow  the  values  given  in  the  following  table  shall  be  used : 


Pounds    Melting        Elastic  Limit  Ultimate    Strength 

per          point      pounds  per  sq.  in.     in    pounds    per    sq.    in. 
cu.  ft.    Fahren-      Tension     Com-      Tension  Compres-      Shear 
heit  pression  sion 


Cast  Iron 

450         °000°F            (H 

KK)         20000 
K)0        25000 
>00         35000 

20000           90000           20000 
50000          50000          40000 
65000          65000          50000 

Wrought  Iron. 
Steel 

4SO         3()00°F.         25( 
490         9500°F          35( 

Ultimate     Coefficient 
elongation    •      of 
per  cent,     expansion! 

Modulus 
of 
elasticity 

Factors  of  Safety 
Steady  Varying 
loads    loads     Shocks 

Cast  Iron 

5            0000062 

15  mil. 
25  mil. 
30  mil. 

6           14            20 
4              6            10 
4              6            10 

Wrought  Iron. 
Steel 

30.              .0000067 
95               0000065 

1.  A  square  steel  bar  2.  in.  on  each  side  is  subject  to  a 
tension  of  80,000  Ibs.    To  find  the  unit  tensile  strength  and  the 
factor  of  safety. 

Area  of  cross-section  of  bar  =2X2=4  sq.  in.  Unit  ten- 
sile stress  =80000-^4=20000  tbs.  per  sq.  in.  The  factor  of 
safety  equals  ultimate  strength  per  sq.  in.  given  in  the  table 
as  65000,  divided  by  the  actual  unit  stress ;  hence :  Factor  of 
safety  =65000-^-20000=3.25  or  a  little  over  3. 

2.  A  round  cast  iron  bar  2  in.  diam.  carries  in  tension 
18850  Ibs.     Find  the  unit  tensile  strength  and  the  factor  of 
safety.    Area  of  cross  section  of  bar  =7854Xdiam.Xdiam.= 
.7854=2X2=3.14   sq.   in.     Unit   tensile   stress   =  18850^3.14 
=6000  tbs.  per  sq.  in.  approximately.    Factor  of  safety  =20000 
-^6000=3  T/3-     As  the  factor  of  safety  for  cast  iron  is  gen- 
erally not  less  than  6,  the  bar  is  unsafely  loaded. 


6  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

3.  A  cast  iron  block  12X12X2  rests  flat  on  a  concrete 
pier.    A  column  erected  on  top  of  this  block  carries  28800  Ibs. 
Assuming  that  the  block   distributes   the   column   load   uni- 
formly upon  the  concrete  pier,  find  the  pressure  in  Ibs.  per 
sq.  in.  on  top  of  the  pier.    Area  of  bottom  of  block  =12X12 
=  144  sq.  in.     Unit  pressure  on  concrete  =28800-=- 144=200 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

4.  A  wrought  iron  square  bar  is  to  carry  in  tension  40,- 
ooo  Ibs.  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  five.    Find  its  cross  section. 
Ultimate  strength  for  wrought  iron  in  tension  =  50000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in.     Since  the  factor  of  safety  is  five,  the  allowable 
working  load  =5 0000-=- 5 =10000  tbs.  per  sq.  in. 

Total  required  area  =  40000  Ibs.  -f-  10000  Ibs.  =  4  sq.  in. 
The  bar  will  therefore  be  a  2  in.  square  wrought  iron  bar. 

5.  A  square  steel  block  is  to  carry  a  column  load  of 
115,200  Ibs.     The  block  rests  on  a  concrete  pier.     Find  the 
area  of  the  block  so  that  the  pressure  upon  the  concrete  pier 
shall  not  exceed  200  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.     Ans. :    The  block  must 
be  not  less  than  2  ft.  —  o  in.  X  2  ft.  —  o  in.  on  bottom. 

6.  Find  the  diam.  of  a  round  steel  bar  to  carry  in  ten- 
sion 240,000  Ibs.,  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  four.    Ans. :  4.3  in., 
Use  a  bar  4  5/16  in.  diam. 

7.  A  cast  iron  square  block  is  to  carry  210,000  Ibs.  in 
compression.     The   allowable   working   stress   is    15,000  Ibs. 
Find  the  area  of  the  block  and  the  factor  of  safety.     Ans. : 
Area  =  14  sq.  in. ;  factor  =  6. 

8.  A  square  steel  block  is  to  carry  280,000  Ibs.  in  com- 
pression.    What  should   be  its  size  in  order  that  the  unit 
stress  may  be  one  third  of  the  elastic  limit?    Ans. :  24  sq.  ins., 
or  a  square  about  5  in.  X  5  in. 

9.  A  bar  of  cast  iron  3  in.  diameter  ruptures  under  a  ten- 
sion  of   141,372  pounds.     What   is   its   ultimate   strength   in 
pounds  per  sq.  inch?    Ans. :  20,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

10.  A  load  of  250,000  Ibs.  is  to  be  carried  in  tension  by 
means  of  a  round  bar.  If  the  factor  of  safety  is  five;  design  a 
cast  iron  round  bar  to  support  the  above  load.     Design  also 
a  wrought  iron  and  a  steel  round  bar,  using  the  same  factor 
of  safety.     Ans.:     Diameters  are  8.91  ins.  for  cast  iron;  5.64 
ins.  for  wrought  iron ;  4.95  ins.  for  steel. 

11.  What  force  will  be  required  to  rupture  in  tension  a 
Y$  in.  round  steel  bar?    Ans.:  28,717  pounds  or  about  14  tons. 

12.  A   cast   iron   bar   one   square   inch   in   cross-section 
weighs  3.1  tbs.  per  foot.     Find  the  length  of  a  vertical  bar 


IRON  AND   STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


which  ruptures  under  its  own  weight  when  hung  on  its  upper 
end?    Ans. :  6450  ft. 

13.  In  a  shearing  machine  a  flat  steel  bar  2  in.  X  y2  in. 
was  sheared  exactly  at  right  angles  to  its  length.     Find  the 
shearing  force?    Ans.:  50,000  pounds  or  about  25  tons. 

14.  Find  the  ultimate  strength  in  shear  for  a  24  m-  diam. 
steel  rivet,  also  ^,  J/£  and  %?    Ans.:  22,090  Ibs. ;  15,340  tbs. ; 
9820  Ibs. ;  5525  Ibs. 

15.  The    allowable    shearing    stress    on    steel    rivets    is 
10,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.    What  is  the  factor  of  safety  for  shear? 
Ans.:  5. 

16.  How  much  load  could  four  24  in.  steel  rivets  carry 
in  direct  shear  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  five?    Ans.:  17,672 
pounds  or  Sj/2  tons. 


44m 


L. -i 

Section  through.  Webs 

rn 


.4* 


Fig.    4 — Cast    Iron    Column    resting    on    two 
Steel  Beams. 

17.  A  cast  iron  column  rests  in  the  middle  of  two  12  in. 
steel  beams,  6  feet  long  (Fig.  4).  If  the  beams  get  an  equal 
share  of  the  load  and  the  column  carries  18  tons  how  many 
24  in.  bolts  are  required  in  each  end  connection  of  the  two 
12  in.  beams?  Ans.:  As  shown  in  the  figure,  there  will  be  a 
load  of  4^2  tons  or  9,000  pounds  at.  the  end  of  each  beam.  A 

Y±  in.  bolt  will  carry  in  shear  70%  of  the  amount  carried  on 
a  24  in.  shop  rivet,  or  70%  of  4418  =  3000  pounds  approxi- 
mately. It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  provide  not  less 
than  three  24  m-  bolts  in  the  ends  of  each  beam. 


8 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


18.  A  derrick  rests  at  the  middle  of  two  15  in.  beams. 
There  are  two  temporary  ^4  m-  bolts  in  each  end  of  each 
beam.  Should  the  derrick  be  used  to  hoist  16  tons  of  steel  at 
once?  Explain  fully?  Ans. :  The  cross-sectional  area  of  a 
54  in.  bolt  is  .4418  sq.  in.  The  ultimate  shearing  strength  for 
steel  bolts  =  50,000  tbs.  Using  a  factor  of  safety  =  6  on  ac- 
count of  varying  loads  used  with  derricks,  we  get :  unit 
working  stress=5o,ooo-^6=8333  tbs.  per  sq.  in.  and  8333 X 
.4418=3680  Ibs.  per  54  m-  rivet  The  load  for  54  in-  bolts  = 
70%  of  3680  =  2576  Ibs.  per  54  m-  bolt  For  two  ^4  in.  bolts 


© 


Fig.    5. 


you  get  2X2576=5152  Ibs.  The  load  at  each  end  of  beams 
equals  four  tons  or  8000  tbs.  The  derrick,  therefore,  should 
not  be  used  for  16  tons  at  a  time.  To  allow  for  shock  and 
overloading,  all  the  bolt  holes  in  ends  of  beams  should  be 
rilled  in  with  good  temporary  bolts  in  all  connections  under 
and  near  the  derrick. 


IRON  AND   STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  9 

19.  A  steel  rod  is  to  carry  a  stress  of  32,500  tbs.  in  ten- 
sion or  compression.  Find  its  diameter  when  used  in  a  bridge 
as  a  hanger,  when  used  in  a  building  as  a  tie,  and  when  used 
as  a  piston  rod  in  a  steam  engine?  Ans. :  The  ultimate 
strength  for  steel  in  either  tension  or  compression  is  65,000 
fibs,  per  sq.  in.  For  bridge  work  where  the  loads  are  varying, 
use  a  factor  of  safety  of  six.  In  building  work  with  practical- 
ly steady  work,  use  a  factor  of  four.  When  the  rod  is  sub- 
ject to  shocks,  as  in  an  engine,  use  a  factor  of  safety  of  ten. 
The  answers  are  :  2  ins. ;  i^  ins. ;  2  9/16  ins. 


Fig.   6 — Steel  Flue  and  Anchor. 


20.  A  steel  bar  2X^2  inches  in  section  is  ruptured  under 
a  tension  of  64,000  tbs.  What  tension  will  rupture  a  2X1/4  m- 
bar  of  the  same  material?    Ans. :  160,000  pounds. 

21.  W'hat  tensile  force  is  required  to  stretch  a  wrought 
iron  bar  4X24  from  25' — o"  to  25'  and  5/16  in.?    Ans.: 

Unit  stress 

We  have :     Modulus  of  elasticity  =  - 

Unit  strain 
From  which : 

Unit  stress  —  Modulus  of  elasticity  X  unit    strain 

and  Unit  stress 

Unit  strain  =  - 

Modulus  of  elesticity 

For  wrought  iron  the  Modulus  of  elasticity  =  25,000,00*0. 
The  elongation  in  25  ft.  is  5/16  in.     The  unit  elongation 


io  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

or  elongation  per  one  inch  =  5/16  -f-  300  ins.  =  1/960  in.  and 
this  is  the  unit  strain. 

Unit  stress  =  25,000,000  X  1/960  =  26,042  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Area  of  cross  section  of  bar  =  4  X  H  =  3  sq.  in. 
Required  tensile  force  =  3  X  26,042  =  78,126  Ibs. 

22.  Find   the   compressive  force  which   will   shorten   a 
block  of  cast  iron  8  inches  square  from  4  ft.  to  3  ft.  lift  ins. 
Ans. :    5,000,000  Ibs. 

23.  Find  the  unit  stress  which  will  stretch  a  steel  bar 
one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  its  length.     Ans. :    30,000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in. 

24.  What  tensile  force  is  required  to  stretch  a  steel  bar 
8  in.  by  ^4  in-  from  30  ft.  to  30  ft.  and  ft  in.?    Ans.:     187,500 
pounds. 

25.  A  steel  bar   12  in.  by   ft   in.   and  28  ft.   long  was 
stretched  in  length  to  28  ft.  and  J^  in.    Find  the  tensile  force. 
Ans. :    401,600  Ibs. 

26.  A  steel  block  6  in.  by  6  in.  and  4  ft.  long  was  short- 
ened under  compression  to  3  ft.  lift  in.    Find  the  unit  strain, 
unit  stress,  total  stress  and  per  cent,  shortening.    Ans. :   Unit 
strain  =  .0078  in.  per  in.  of  length.    Unit  stress  =  232,000  Ibs. 
Total  stress  =  843,000  Ibs.     Per  cent,  shortening,  78/160  of 
i  per  cent. 

27.  A  steel  bar  io  ft.  long  at  32°  F.  is  heated  to  500°  F. 
Find  the  change  in  length  due  to  expansion. 

Ans.:  Elongation  per  foot  per  i°  F.  =  .0000065;  elonga- 
tion per  500°  —  32°  or  468°  F.  =  .0000065  X  468;  elongation 
per  io  ft.  =  .0000065  X  468  X  io  =  .0304  ft.  or  nearly  ft  in. 

28.  A  vertical  boiler  flue  20  stories  high  is  used  to  carry 
away  furnace  gases  at  a  temperature  of  500°  F.    Find  the  total 
expansion  from  60°  F.  to  500°  F.  assuming  each  story  12  ft. 
—  6  in.  high.     Ans.:     89/16  ins.  approximately. 

29.  An  outside  steel  flue  4  ft.  diam.  and  250  ft.  high  is 
used  for  gases  varying  in  temperatur  from  60°  F.  to  500°  F. 
The  flue  is  kept  in  place  at  each  story  by  means  of  flat  2x^5 
in.  steel  straps.    The  straps  are  larger  on  one  side  by  ^  in. 
Find  the  expansion  across  the  diameter.     (Fig.  6). 

Length  of  circumference  =  3.14  X  48  in.  =  150.7  in. 
approximately. 

Expansion  of  circumference  per  degree  F.  =.  150.7  X 
.0000065  =  •oo°9795  ins.  or,  say,  .00098. 

Expansion  of  circumference  for  (500-60)°  =  .00098  X 
440°  =  .431  ins. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  11 

Length  of  new  circumference  at  500°  =  150.7  X  43 1  = 
151.13  ins. 

Length  of  new  diameter  =  48.13  ins. 

The  expansion  in  diameter  is  therefore  about  l/%  in.  and 
the  y2  in.  clearance  is  not  necessary,  the  hoop  being  able  to 
resist  the  effect  of  this  expansion,  especially  that  the  hoop 
will  also  expand  to  a  certain  extent.  Flue  straps  should  be 
made  tight  against  the  face  of  the  flue. 

30.  A  steel  column  is  so  placed  in  the  boiler  room  of  a 
building  that  it  cannot  expand.     The  column  is  18  ft.  long. 
Find  the  additional  unit  compression  caused  in  this  column 
by  a  change  of  temperature  from  60°  F.  to  160°  F. 

If  the  column  was  free  to  expand,  the  change  in  length 
for  100°  F.  or  from  60°  F.  to  160°  F.  would  be  equal  to 
18  ft.  X  100°  X  .0000065  X  12  in.  =  .1404  in. 

The  force  required  to  stretch  this  column  .1404  in.  is 
equal  to  the  additional  compression  caused  by  not  allowing 
the  column  to  expand. 

.1404 

Expansion  per  inch  length  =  -  =  .00065  in.  = 

18  x  12 

unit  strain. 

Unit  tensile  stress  causing  this  expansion  equals  30,000,- 
ooo  X  unit  strain  =.  19,500  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  This  load  comes 
on  the  column  in  addition  to  its  load  at  60°  F.  In  general, 
however,  structures  expand  as  a  whole  and  this  reduces  the 
effects  of  expansion  upon  any  one  column. 

31.  What  force  is  required  to  punch  a  13/16  in.  hole  in 
a  y%  in.  steel  plate?    Also  a  9/16  in.  hole  in  a  5/16  in.  steel 
plate  ? 

Ans. :  Circumference  of  a  13/16  in.  hole  =  2.55  in.  Area 
to  be  sheared  by  the  edges  of  the  punch  when  passing 
through  a  ^  in.  plate  —  2.55  X  Y&  =  .96  sq.  in.  Shearing 
force  =•  50,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  X  -96  =  47,900  Ibs.  Similarly 
for  a  9/16  in.  hole  in  a  ^g  in.  plate  the  shearing  force  will 
be  27,500  Ibs. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel. 
CAST  IRON. 

Cast  Iron  was  first  made  in  England  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century. 

Definition.  Cast  iron  is  a  product  of  the  blast  furnace ; 
it  is  iron  which  is  not  malleable  and  which  is  produced  by  a 
process  involving  fusion. 

Manufacture.  All  iron  is  obtained  from  iron  ores.  The 
most  common  ores  used  for  this  purpose  are : 

Hematite  or  red  iron  ore,  containing  about  70%  iron. 

Limonite  or  brown  iron  ore,  containing  about  60%  iron. 

Magnetite  or  black  iron  ore,  containing  about  60%  iron. 

In  addition,  the  ores  contain  various  impurities,  like 
alumina,  manganese,  phosphorus,  silica,  sulphur,  etc.  Part 
of  these  impurities  separate  from  the  iron  and  go  into  the 
slag  during  the  process  of  melting  the  ores  in  the  blast  fur- 
nace. 

The  product  of  the  blast  furnace  is  allowed  to  flow  into 
channels  dug  in  sand,  where  it  cools  off.  The  main  channel 
is  the  "sow,"  while  the  branch  channels  are  called  the  "pigs." 
Hence  the  name  of  pig  iron.  This  pig  iron  is  remelted  in  a 
cupola  and  poured  into  moulds  forming  castings. 

Classifications.  Various  grades  of  cast  iron  may  be 
classified  as  follows : 


Pig  Iron 
(Cast  Irou) 

1.  Foundry   Pig 
(Gray  Cast  Iron) 
Contains  6%  to  4%  Carbon. 

Names 

Properties   and   Uses  : 

No.  1 
No.  2 
No.  3 

Gray 
Gray 
Gray   forge 

Dark  gray  fracture 
with    metallic    lustre 
and  large  crystals 
Specific    gravity    7.1    to 
7.2 
Turns  easy  ;  soft  and 
tough. 
Used  for  castings. 

2.  Forge  Pig 
(White  Cast  Iron) 
Contains  4%  to  2%  Carbon. 

1  No.  5 
No.  4 

White 
Mottled 

Light  gray  to  silver 
white   fracture   and 
small  crystals. 
Specific    gravity    7.2    to 
7.4 
Hard  to  turn  and 
brittle. 
Used   for   making 
wrought  iron  and 
steel. 

fe— a 


A_^-l 


MM,  charging 
floor ;  DD,  drawing 
floor ;  H,  hopper ;  B, 
charging  bell ;  T, 
throat;  K,  shaft; 
H,  hearth,  A  A, 
tuyeres  or  air  blow- 
ing pipes;  F,  flue 
exit  for  gases;  WW, 
cold  water  cooling 
pipes;  I,  iron  ore; 
L,  limestone ;  C, 
coke ;  S,  cinder 
notch  for  drawing 
out  the  slag;  P, 
tap  hole  for  draw- 
ing out  the  metal. 


Fig.   7 — The  Blast  Furnace. 


14  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Nos.  i  and  2  are  used  exclusively  for  foundry  purposes. 
No.  3,  for  both  foundry  and  rolling  mill ;  finally,  Nos.  4  and  5, 
for  the  rolling  mill  only. 

Mottled  iron  is  iron  with  a  white  background,  dotted 
with  spots  of  graphitic  carbon. 

Properties.  In  addition  to  carbon  cast  iron  may  contain 
about  five  per  cent,  of  impurities  like  silicon,  manganese, 
phosphorus,  sulphur,  etc. 

The  gray  cast  iron  is  used  for  castings.  The  darker 
grades  of  gray  cast  iron  make  the  smoother  castings,  but 
are  more  brittle.  The  lighter  grades  of  gray  cast  iron  make 
tough  castings  and  very  often  contain  blow  holes. 

The  white  cast  iron  is  hard,  brittle  and  difficult  to  work, 
while  the  gray  cast  iron  is  soft,  tough  and  easily  worked.  A 
fracture  of  good  gray  cast  iron  shows  a  light  blueish  gray 
color,  a  close  grained  texture  and  considerable  metallic  lustre. 

A  fracture  of  poor  cast  iron  presents  a  mottled  surface, 
with  patches  of  darker  and  brighter  iron,  or  it  may  show 
crystalline  patches.  Air  holes  may  also  be  present  in  frac- 
tures of  very  bad  specimens. 

The  quality  of  cast  iron  may  be  improved  by  long  con- 
tinued fusion  and  by  repeated  melting  up  to  about  twelve 
times.  Cold  blast  pig  gives  stronger  iron,  but  more  expensive 
than  hot  blast  pig. 

Effects  of  Impurities.  Carbon  in  cast  iron  decreases  the 
specific  gravity  and  the  melting  point.  Other  effects  have 
been  given  under  classification. 

Manganese  increases  hardness  and  shrinkage,  it  also  in- 
creases the  percentage  of  carbon  that  the  iron  may  hold  into 
combination. 

Phosphorus  is  readily  taken  up  during  the  smelting 
process.  Less  than  one  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  in  cast  iron 
is  beneficial,  as  it  increases  the  fluidity  and  lessens  the 
shrinkage.  Over  one  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  seriously  weak- 
ens the  iron. 

Silicon  in  small  quantity  will  usually  increase  the 
strength  of  the  cast  iron.  A  large  amount  makes  the  iron 
brittle  and  weak. 

Sulphur  comes  into  the  iron  from  the  ores  and  from 
the  coal  used  in  the  smelting  process.  Sulphur  in  castings 
should  not  exceed  half  of  one  per  cent.  Sulphur  increases 
chill  and  shrinkage  and  decreases  the  strength,  rendering 
castings  unsound. 

Common  Defects  in  Cast  Iron.  Blow  holes  and  honey- 
comb are  defects  caused  by  confined  air  and  may  render 
castings  unsound.  Cavities  and  holes  are  caused  by  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  15 

collection  of  foundry  dirt  and  other  impurities  and  by  un- 
equal contraction  during  cooling.  Internal  stresses  due  to 
unequal  contraction  of  the  metal  during  cooling  will  often 
cause  rupture,  especially  while  the  casting  is  struck  a  few 
sharp  blows.  Internal  stresses  may  be  avoided  during  the 
casting  process  by  uncovering  the  thick  parts  first,  so  that 
they  may  cool  just  as  quickly  as  the  lighter  parts.  Other 
things  being  the  same,  the  longer  the  cooling  period  the  bet- 
ter the  castings. 

Following  defects  are  often  found  in  cast  iron  columns : 

1.  Unequal  thickness,   due  to  the  shifting  of  the  core 
before  the  metal  is  poured  into  the  mould. 

2.  Shrinkage  cracks,  due  to  unequal  contraction  during 
cooling. 

3.  Warping  and  bending,  caused  by  unequal  contraction 
during  cooling  or  by  handling  the  columns  before  they  have 
sufficiently  cooled. 

4.  Cold  shuts.     In  long  castings  requiring  the  metal  to 
be  poured  from  both   ends  in  the  same  time,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  the  metal  becomes  too  much  chilled  to  properly 
mix  and  unite.    This  results  in  the  formation  of  weak  seams, 
known  as  "cold  shuts." 

The  surface  defects  of  cast  iron  are  swells,  scales,  blisters, 
cold  shuts,  etc. 

Inspection  of  Cast  Iron.  The  work  of  inspecting  iron 
in  general  may  be  divided  as  follows : 

a.  Laboratory  examination  and  tests. 

b.  Mill  inspection. 

c.  Field  inspection. 

Laboratory  Inspection  of  cast  iron  consists  in  examining 
several  test-bars  poured  from  each  melt.  These  test-bars 
are  poured  alternately  before  arid  after  the  casting  is  poured. 
About  one  test-bar  for  each  ton  of  castings  is  generally  suffi- 
cient. 

Test-bars  for  tensile  strength  are  about  eighteen  inches 
long,  and  usually  turned  down  in  a  lathe  in  order  to  remove 
the  exterior  scale  and  enable  a  careful  measurement  of  the 
diameter.  They  are  then  subject  to  increased  tension  in  a 
testing  machine  until  rupture  occurs.  The  elongation  of  the 
bar  is  recorded  for  the  various  applied  tensile  stresses.  Test- 
bars  for  bending  cast  iron  are  usually  3  inches  wide  by  I  inch 
thick,  and  are  either  14  inches  or  26  inches  long;  they  are 
placed  on  supports  12  or  24  inches  apart,  with  the  narrow 
side  vertical,  and  loaded  on  the  center  until  broken.  The 
deflection  as  well  as  the  breaking  load  are  noted. 


16  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

The  Shop  Inspection  of  structural  cast  iron,  like  bases, 
columns,  etc.,  is  very  similar  to  the  field  inspection,  and  both 
will  be  treated  together  in  a  future  chapter.  We  will  make 
mention,  however,  with  regard  to  the  shop  inspection  of  cast 
iron  water  pipes. 

Shop  Inspection  of  Cast  Iron  Water  Pipes.  These  are 
first  subjected  to  a  surface  examination.  Pipes  with  visible 
honeycomb  and  serious  sand  holes  and  blow  holes  are  at 
once  rejected.  The  same  thing  applies  also  to  pipes  with 
swells,  scales  and  blisters  on  their  interior  faces.  Honey- 
comb when  not  visible  is  easily  located  by  the  dull  sound 
given  by  the  pipe  on  tapping  it  with  a  hammer.  The  pipe 
is  next  subjected  to  a  hydraulic  pressure  about  twice  as  high 
as  the  pressure  under  which  the  pipe  is  to  be  used.  While 
under  pressure  the  pipe  is  carefully  tapped  all  over  with  a 
hammer  to  discover  air  holes,  flaws,  etc.  Each  cast  iron  pipe 
has  stamped  on  it  the  weight  per  foot.  The  weighing  and 
marking  of  each  piece  is  also  inspected.  All  defective  pipes 
are  rejected. 

Advantages  of  Cast  Iron.  Cast  iron  has  a  high  com- 
pressive  strength,  is  durable  and  little  affected  by  corrosion ; 
it  can  be  cast  readily  in  many  useful  shapes,  and  is  cheaper 
than  steel.  Cast  iroh  retains  its  rigidity  at  a  red  heat.  For 
these  reasons  cast  iron  is  used  for  column  footings,  columns, 
water  pipes,  bed  plates  for  machinery,  boilers,  etc. 

Disadvantages  of  Cast  Iron.  Cast  iron  is  brittle,  has  a 
low  tensile  strength,  and  a  low  ductility  and  elongation.  It 
is  not  so  homogenous  as  steel  and  is  therefore  less  reliable ; 
it  also  snaps  under  the  action  of  water  in  fires,  when  the  iron 
is  red  hot.  Cast  iron  in  building  work  gives  connections 
which  cannot  be  riveted,  and  must  be  bolted,  thus  causing 
lack  of  rigidity.  For  these  reasons  cast  iron  should  not  be 
used  where  subject  to  tensile*  stress,  heavy  vibration,  shocks 
or  impact. 

WROUGHT   IRON. 

Wrought  iron  is  the' oldest  known  form  of  iron.  It  has 
been  found  in  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and  has  probably  re- 
sulted at  first  from  the  action  of  fire  upon  nearly  pure  iron 
ore. 

Definition.  Wrought  iron  is  metallic  iron  which  has 
been  manufactured  by  any  process  without  fusion,  and  which 
contains  less  than  0.25  per  cent,  carbon. 

Manufacture.  At  present  wrought  iron  is  generally 
manufactured  from  forge  pig  by  a  method  known  as  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  17 

puddling  process.  The  pig  iron  is  subjected  to  the  oxidizing 
flame  of  a  blast  in  a  reverbatory  furnace.  Here  the  iron  loses 
some  of  its  impurities  through  oxidation,  and  becomes  soft 
like  a  paste.  Operators  known  as  puddlers,  using  special 
rakes,  form  this  iron  into  paste-like  balls  called  puddle  balls 
or  blooms,  weighing  about  eighty  pounds  each.  Each  ball  is 
then  passed  through  a  squeezer  to  expel  cinder  and  part  of 
the  slag;  then  the  ball  is  rolled  into  a  "muck  bar."  Muck 
bars  are  cut  to  length,  laid  in  piles,  reheated,  and  rolled  to 
"merchant  bars."  These  are  again  cut  to  length,  laid  in  piles, 
reheated,  and  rolled,  giving  "best  iron."  If  the  process  is 
again  repeated  and  the  best  iron  is  rolled  once  more,  a  grade 
known  as  "best  best  iron,"  or  double  refined  iron,  is  produced. 

Properties.  Wrought  iron  is  a  malleable  metal,  can  be 
forged  and  welded,  and  will  stand  shocks.  It  can  not  be 
tempered,  and  can  not  be  melted,  except  with  great  difficulty. 
Good  wrought  iron  is  tough  and  has  a  fine  fibrous  and  close 
texture;  if  subjected,  however,  to  repeated  shocks  and  excess 
loads  around  the  elastic  limit,  the  texture  changes  from 
fibrous  to  crystalline,  with  a  decrease  in  the  strength  of  the 
metal. 

Best  iron  is  about  ten  per  cent,  stronger  than  the  mer- 
chant bar,  due  to  the  second  rolling. 

Cold  rolling  decreases  the  ductility  and  the  ultimate 
elongation  and  increases  the  elastic  limit  and  the  ultimate 
strength.  The  strength  also  increases  with  a  higher  per- 
centage of  carbom 

Annealing  decreases  the  ultimate  strength  and  increases 
the  elongation. 

The  fracture  of  good  wrought  iron  is  fine,  fibrous  and 
close,  with  small  crystals  of  uniform  size  and  color,  and  with 
a  silky  lustre.  The  metal  has  a  leaden  gray  color.  The 
fracture  of  poor  wrought  iron  shows  coarse  crystals,  loose, 
open  and  blackish  fibres  and  blotches  of  color.  Flaws  in  the 
fractured  surface  indicate  that  the  reheating,  rolling  and 
welding  processes  were  imperfectly  carried  out. 

Wrought  iron  high  in  phosphorus  is  brittle  when  cold, 
hence  the  name,  "cold  short."  Wrought  iron  containing  sul- 
phur, arsenic  and  other  impurities,  is  known  as  "red  short,"  and 
will  crack  when  bent  at  a  red  heat.  Red  short  iron  cannot 
be  welded. 

Common  Defects  in  Wrought  Iron.  i.  Poor  material, 
shown  by  a  fracture  with  coarse  crystals  and  loose  fibres. 

2.  Flaws  in  the  fracture,  indicating  "red  short"  iron. 

3.  Bright  crystalline  fracture  and  discolored  spots,  in- 
dicating "cold  short"  iron. 


iS  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Inspection  of  Wrought  Iron.  Tests.  The  usual  tests  for 
wrought  iron  ore  are  as  follows : 

1.  Cold  bending  test:    A  square  bar   1/4."  on  each  side 
and   about   15"   long  is  bent   cold   by  means   of   pressure   or 
with  a  hammer,  to  an  angle  of  90°  in  a  curve  whose  radius 
is  equal  to  twice  the  thickness  of  the  bar.    Rivet  iron  is  bent 
on  itself  or  through  an  angle  of  180°  while  cold.     No  cracks 
should  result.     Wrought  iron  breaking  under  this  test  lacks 
both  ductility  and  strength. 

2.  Hot  bending  test:     Iron  which  is  to  be  worked  hot 
must  bend  sharply  to  90°  at  a  working  heat  without  fracture. 
Iron  showing  cracks  under  these  conditions  is  "red   short," 
or  high  in  impurities,  and  cannot  be  welded. 

3.  Nicking  and  bending:    Specimens  upon  being  nicked 
on  one  side  and  bent  should  show  a  fracture  nearly  fibrous. 

4.  Tensile   strength   is   determined   with   a  testing  ma- 
chine from  test  pieces,  usually  about  18"  long  by  i"  wide, 
cut  from  the  full-sized  bar  after  the  material  is  rolled.    The 
thickness  of  the  test  piece  will  therefore  be  the  same  as  that 
of   the   finished   bar.     The   various   stresses   and   the   corre- 
sponding elongations  are  recorded. 

5.  In  comparing  several  samples  of  wrought  iron  it  is 
sometimes  found  convenient  to  multiply  the  tensile  strength 
of  each  specimen  by  the  corresponding  ultimate  elongation. 
The  resulting  product  is  a  measure  of  the  work  required  to 
rupture  the  bar.     The  best  specimen  will  correspond  to  the 
highest  product  obtained  in  this  way. 

Advantages.  Wrought  iron  is  a  durable  material,  and 
can  be  readily  worked  into  a  large  variety  of  forms  when 
heated.  Pure  wrought  iron  is  less  affected  by  corrosion 
than  steel.  Unlike  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  is  malleable,  and 
can  therefore  be  made  into  plates.  It  is  ductile,  or  can  be 
made  into  wires,  and  it  is  about  equally  strong  in  tension 
and  compression.  For  these  reasons  wrought  iron  may  be 
used  in  places  where  subject  to  alternating  compressive  and 
tensile  stresses,  provided  the  unit  stress  is  not  excessive. 
It  was  much  used  for  truss-members,  columns,  beams,  girders, 
wall  anchors,  rivets,  etc.  At  present  it  is  largely  replaced  by 
soft  steel. 

Disadvantages.  Wrought  iron  is  not  as  homogenous  as 
steel,  cannot  be  melted  without  difficulty,  and  is  less  stiff 
than  steel,  i.  e.,  a  wrought  iron  beam  will  deflect  more  than 
a  steel  beam  of  similar  length  and  cross-section  under  the 
same  load. 

Wrought  iron  is  also  less  strong  than  steel.  For  all 
these  reasons  it  is  not  used  where  great  strength  is  required. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  19 

Even  in  ornamental  iron  work  the  lower  carbon  steel  or  soft 
steel  has  largely  replaced  wrought  iron,  due  to  the  cheapness 
and  the  capability  of  the  soft  steel  of  being  readily  worked 
into  various  desired  forms. 


STEEL. 

Steel,  produced  by  a  special  method  little  used  at 
present,  was  known  from  very  old  times  and  manufactured 
in  Asia,  where  it  was  used  especially  for  making  high  grade 
tools  and  war  weapons.  The  Bessemer  steel  of  to-day  was 
invented  by  Bessemer  in  England. 

Definition.  Steel  is  iron  which  is  malleable  and  which 
is  produced  by  any  process  with  fusion. 

Manufacture.  Steel  contains  less  than  two  per  cent, 
carbon,  and  can  be  manufactured  from  wrought  iron  by  add- 
ing carbon  to  same,  or  from  cast  iron  by  removing  part  of 
the  carbon.  The  most  common  processes  of  steel  manu- 
facture at  present  are  as  follows: 

The  Crucible  Process.  Blister  steel  or  impure  wrought 
iron  is  mixed  with  some  flux  and  carbon  in  a  closed  crucible. 
The  mixture  is  fused  in  the  absence  of  air  for  several  days. 
The  best  tool  steel  is  thus  obtained. 

The  Open  Hearth  Process.  Pig  iron  is  fused  in  a 
Siemens  furnace  with  enough  wrought  iron  scrap  to  reduce 
the  percentage  of  carbon  to  any  desired  amount.  Most  of 
the  structural  steel  used  for  buildings  and  bridges  is  manu- 
factured by  this  process. 

The  Bessemer  Process.  Air  is  blown  through  molten 
pig  iron  in  a  Bessemer  converter  until  all  the  carbon  is 
burned  out.  Then  the  desired  percentage  of  carbon  is  ob- 
tained by  throwing  into  the  converter  a  sufficient  amount  of 
"Spiegeleisen,"  an  iron  compound  containing  a  large  per- 
centage of  carbon.  The  molten  steel  is  cast  into  moulds 
and  rolled.  Steel  rails  are  largely  manufactured  in  this  way. 

Properties.  Steel  is  a  malleable  metal,  can  be  forged  and 
welded,  and  will  stand  shocks.  It  can  be  tempered  and  can 
be  melted.  Good  steel  is  flexible,  has  a  fine  texture  and  is  a 
durable  material.  The  higher  the  percentage  of  carbon  the 
greater  is  the  ultimate  strength  of  steel  and  the  lower  the 
percentage  elongation.  The  carbon  contents  also  affects  the 
temper  and  the  welding  qualities  of  steel.  A  high  carbon 
steel  takes  a  good  temper  and  is  hardly  weldable,  while  a 
low  carbon  steel  takes  no  temper  but  welds  readily. 


20  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

The  following  table  shows  a  comparison  between  several 
of  the  properties  of  the  various  grades  of  steel  in  common 
use  and  their  carbon  content : 

Tensile  Strength 
Grade  Per  cent.  Carbon.  pounds     per    sq.     in. 


High   Carbon   Steel 
Medium    Steel 
Low   Carbon    Steel 

1.0   to   0.3 
0.4   to    0.2 
0.3   to   0.05 

70000    to    80000 
60000    to    70000 
50000    to    60000 

Grade 

Temper. 

Welding. 

High  Carbon   Steel 
Medium    Steel 
Low   Carbon    Steel 

Takes    good    temper 
Takes    poor    temper 
Takes    no    temper 

Welds     difficultly 
Weldable 
Easily    weldable 

High  carbon  steel  is  used  in  making  tools  and  machinery.  Kails  and 
beams  are  generally  rolled  from  medium  steel,  while  the  softer  grades  are 
used  in  making  plates  and  rivets. 

In  addition  to  carbon,  steel  contains  a  certain  amount 
of  impurities,  like  manganese,  phosphorus,  silicon,  sulphur, 
etc. 

Manganese.  A  small  amount  of  manganese  is  beneficial, 
as  it  partly  counteracts  the  bad  effects  of  sulphur  and  tends 
to  prevent  hot  shortness.  In  addition,  manganese  in  small 
quantity  increases  malleability,  elongation,  toughness  and 
tensile  strength.  An  excess  of  manganese  is  undesirable,  as 
it  tends  to  make  the  steel  cold  short. 

Phosphorus.  This  is  the  worst  impurity  that  steel  could 
contain.  Even  a  small  amount  makes  the  steel  hard  and 
easy  to  break,  reduces  elongation  and  causes  cold  shortness. 

Silicon.  A  very  small  amount  of  silicon  makes  the  steel 
solidify  on  cooling  without  agitation,  thus  preventing  air 
holes.  In  addition,  silicon  increases  the  hardness  and  the 
tensile  strength.  Steel  containing  more  than  one-half  of  one 
per  cent,  of  silicon  is  brittle  and  unforgeable. 

Sulphur.  Even  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  makes  the 
steel  "red  short,"  that  is,  the  steel  becomes  brittle  under 
the  hammer  or  roller  when  hot.  A  small  amount  of  man- 
ganese will  partly  counteract  the  injurious  effects  of  sulphur. 

Fracture  of  Steel.  Low  carbon  steel  and  thoroughly 
annealed  higher  grades  show  a  fine  and  silky  fracture,  with 
an  angular  and  irregular  outline,  provided  the  breakage  is 
produced  gradually.  In  other  cases  the  fracture  is  partly 
granular  and  partly  silky,  or  wholly  granular.  In  cases  of 
sudden  rupture  the  fracture  is  generally  cup-shaped,  with 
an  even  surface,  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  piece, 
and  with  a  granular  texture. 

The  color  of  good  steel  is  light  pearl  gray. 

The  fracture  of  poor  steel  is  dull,  sandy  looking  and 
without  metallic  lustre.  The  color  may  be  yellowish. 
Burned  steel  has  a  granular  fracture  and  a  whitish  hue. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  21 

Nickel  steel  is  an  alloy  of  steel  containing  about  three 
per  cent,  of  nickel.  This  makes  the  alloy  very  strong.  Some 
bars  have  shown  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  over  250,000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  and  an  elastic  limit  of  over  100,000 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Nickel  steel  is  sometimes  used  in 
bridge  work.  It  gives  a  higher  strength  than  steel  per 
pound  of  metal  and  it  materially  reduces  the  dead  weight 
of  the  structure. 

Cast  steel  is  produced  from  "scrap"  steel  made  by  any 
process,  or  from  pig  iron  melted  together  with  a  certain 
amount  of  spiegeleisen,  manganese,  etc.  The  mixture  is 
heated  to  about  1500°  C.  and  then  poured.  Cast  steel  is 
hard  and  strong,  but  brittle  when  raised  above  a  red  heat. 
Small  amounts  of  manganese  and  silicon  reduce  the  size 
and  number  of  blowholes,  but  render  the  castings  more 
brittle. 

Steel  castings  contain  generally  from  0.25  to  0.50  per  cent, 
of  carbon  and  have  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  from  60,000 
to  100,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Cast  steel  is  extensively  used  for  axle-boxes,  cross-heads, 
base  plates  for  machinery,  and  in  some  cases  in  building 
work  for  cast  steel  shoes  or  bases  in  place  of  cast  iron  bases. 

Common  Defects  in  Steel.  Blow  holes  or  air  holes  are 
defects  caused  by  confined  air  or  by  the  escape  of  gases 
evolved  during  cooling.  In  steel  ingots  they  occur  generally 
near  the  outer  surface  of  the  same  and  toward  the  upper 
part  of  the  ingot. 

Pipes  are  cavities  caused  by  the  outside  of  the  ingot 
cooling  more  rapidly  than  the  inside.  This  defect  usually 
occurs  within  conical  lines  in  the  upper  third  of  the  ingot, 
and  is  discovered  in  an  ingot  by  cutting  off  the  metal  near 
the  upper  part.  If  an  ingot  having  pipes  is  rolled  into 
shapes,  the  defect  will  show  in  the  surface  of  the  rolled 
material  as  a  line  of  cavities. 

Burning  occurs  when  a  piece  of  steel  is  overheated.  It 
is  indicated  by  small  cup-like  holes  called  "pits."  If  a  burning 
piece  of  steel  is  withdrawn  from  the  fire  it  will  throw  off  an 
abundance  of  sparks. 

Cinder  spots  result  from  fragments  of  fire  brick,  dirt  or 
cinders  which  have  been  rolled  into  the  metal. 

Cracks  are  due  to  rolled  out  blow  holes.  These  cracks, 
although  small  in  the  beginning,  may  be  the  starting  points 
for  ultimate  rupture.  Steel  with  cracks  should  be  rejected. 

Laps  result  from  careless  rolling  or  hammering.  A  por- 
tion of  the  steel  is  folded  over  itself,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  walls  are  sufficiently  oxidized  to  prevent  the  parts  from 


22  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

uniting.  Laps  or  laminations  run  parallel  with  the  length 
of  the  piece  and  continue  for  a  considerable  length.  Laps 
can  be  easily  noticed  on  the  surface  of  the  metal. 

Seams  are  open  and  elongated  blow  holes  which  have 
been  brought  to  the  surface  during  rolling,  without  being 
closed  by  the  rolling  process.  They  are  usually  not  con- 
tinuous and  only  one  to  two  inches  long. 

Snakes  consist  of  small  lines  twisting  in  all  directions, 
and  are  due  to  foreign  substances  separating  two  masses 
of  pure  steel. 

Stars  are  bright  spots  in  mid-section,  which  are  formed 
when  the  pipe  •  in  the  ingot  is  not  completely  cut  away 
before  rolling. 

Cobbles  are  irregularities  which  result  when  one  side 
has  been  heated  more  than  the  other. 

Advantages.  Good  steel  is  a  durable  material.  The 
low  carbon  varieties  can  be  readily  welded,  and  are  fast 
replacing  wrought  iron  in  the  manufacture  of  a  large  variety 
of  ornamental  work.  Steel  is  slightly  stronger  in  compres- 
sion than  in  tension,  and  is  malleable  and  ductile. 

Steel  wires  can  be  made  sufficiently  small  in  diameter 
to  be  burned  in  the  flame  of  an  ordinary  match.  In  general, 
the  smaller  the  diameter  the  higher  the  ultimate  tensile 
strength.  Steel  wire  can  be  manufactured  to  stand  150  tons 
per  square  inch  in  tension.  It  is  therefore  used  for  cables  in 
suspension  bridges.  Steel  is  more  homogenous  and  more 
reliable  than  either  wrought  or  cast  iron.  It  also  has  greater 
strength  and  stiffness  than  wrought  iron,  and  since  the  price 
of  steel  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  wrought  iron,  steel  has 
practically  replaced  wrought  iron  for  structural  purposes.  A 
considerable  amount  of  steel  is  used  for  railroad  rails  and 
for  bridges  and  buildings. 

INSPECTION   OF  STEEL. 

Testing.  Following  are  the  tests  generally  employed  to 
determine  the  quality  and  other  properties  of  steel : 

i.  Tensile  tests  are  made  to  determine  the  tenacity  and 
ductility  of  the  metal.  The  tenacity  is  indicated  by  the 
elastic  limit  and  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  specimen.  The 
ductility  is  measured  by  the  per  cent,  elongation  between 
two  points  marked  with  a  pointer  on  the  test  piece  before 
testing,  and  from  the  decrease  or  per  cent,  reduction  of  the 
cross  section  of  the  test  piece. 

The  common  shape  used  for  sheared  plates  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.  The  middle  portion  is  ij^  inches  wide  and  of  the 
.same  thickness  as  the  original  plate.  Points  are  marked 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  23 

every  inch  on  the  central  portion  with  a  steel  pointer.  The 
distance  between  two  points,  one  on  each  side  of  the  fracture 
and  8  inches  apart,  is  measured  after  the  test,  and  the 
per  cent,  elongation  in  8  inches  is  thus  determined  by  care- 
fully measuring  the  dimensions  of  the  cross-section  at  the 
point  of  rupture  before  and  after  the  test.  The  reduced 
area  is  computed,  and  from  this  the  per  cent,  reduction. 


.About  3'; 


R  bout  3; 


About  a" 

<?] 

< 

* 

>    1    < 

Parallel  Section  A  bout  ^ 

About  18' 

Figr.    8 — Test   Piece. 

For  shapes  other  than  plates,  similar  test  pieces  are  used, 
after  same  have  been  planed  or  turned  parallel  throughout 
their  entire  length.  The  elongation  is  measured  in  8  inches 
of  the  original  length. 

Rivet  rounds  and  small  bars  are  tested  of  full  size  as 
rolled. 

2.  Cold  bending.    Rivet  or  soft  steel  shall  bend  cold  180 
degrees,    and    close    flat    upon    itself    without    showing   any 
cracks.      For   plates   flat   pieces   one   inch    wide   and   of   the 
original  thickness  may  be  used. 

3.  Hot  bending.    A  piece  of  medium  steel  is  heated  to 
a  cherry  red,  then  cooled  in  water  at  70°  F.     It  is  then  bent 
180°   around  a  rod  whose  diameter  equals  the  thickness  of 
the  test  piece.     No  cracks  should  result. 

4.  Drifting  test.     Drive  a  drift  pin  through  a  punched 
hole  in  a  plate,  using  a  sledge  hammer.     Notice  how  much 
the  hole  can  be  enlarged  without  fracturing  the  metal.    A 
hole  for  a  y^  inch  rivet  in  a  steel  plate,  and  with  the  center 
of  the  hole  not  nearer  to  the  edge  of  the  plate  than  il/2  inches, 
shall  be  capable  of  passing  a  drift  pin   1^4  inches  diameter 
without  fracture. 

5.  Hardening  test.     The   specimen   is   heated   to   a   red 
heat,  then  plunged  in  water  at  freezing  point.     Then  bend 
the  bar,  and  compare  the  results  with  those  obtained  from 


24  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

similar  pieces  not  hardened.    The  effect  of  hardening  is  thus 
ascertained. 

6.  Forging  tests.    This  is  used  for  rivet  rods.     One  end 
of  the  rod  is  heated  to  a  red  heat,  then  flattened  with  a  ham- 
mer.   If  any  small  cracks  appear  this  indicates  red  shortness. 

7.  Welding  test.     A  bar  one  square  inch  in  cross-section 
is  heated  to  a  white  heat,  then  upset  and  drawn  down  to  the 
original  thickness  with  a  ten-pound  hammer.     Neither  flux 
nor  water  should  be  used.    The  bar  is  then  tested  in  tension. 

8.  Quenching  test.     Heat  the  steel  bar  to  a  cherry  red 
and  plunge  in  water  at  80°   F.     Then  bend  the  bar  around 
the  curve  1^2  times  its  diameter.     No  cracks  should  appear 
on  the  outer  part  of  the  bar. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Shop  and  Mill  Inspection  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

Shop  Operations.  Following  are  the  main  operations  to 
which  iron  and  steel  are  subjected  in  a  structural  shop  and  to 
v.-hich  the  shop  inspector  should  pay  considerable  attention : 
Straightening,  marking  off  and  punching,  second  straighten- 
ing, reaming,  assembling,  second  reaming,  riveting,  facing, 
boring,  finishing,  fitting  up,  oiling,  painting  and  shipping. 

The  shop  inspector  must  be  provided  with-  a  set  of  work- 
ing drawings,  a  bill  of  materials  and  a  copy  of  the  specifica- 
tions. 

He  must  also  see  that  all  material  is  straight  before  and 
after  punching;  otherwise  the  riveting  will  be  deficient,  with 
loose  rivets  caused  by  the  spring  of  the  bent  parts.  The  in- 
spector should  also  examine  the  punch  dies  occasionally  to 
see  that  the  edges  are  sharp  and  unbroken  and  that  the  differ- 
ence in  diameters  between  the  upper  and  lower  dies  does  not 
exceed  1/16  in. 

The  shop  inspector  must  examine  all  dimensions  of  fin- 
ished parts,  must  see  that  all  rivets  and  bolt  holes  are  in 
their  proper  places  and  must  make  sure  that  all  field  connec- 
tions match.  He  must  see  that  all  errors  are  corrected  at 
the  shop. 

Connections  to  be  riveted  in  the  field  may  be  checked  by 
assembling  the  parts  in  the  shop,  or  by  reaming  both  parts  in 
succession  to  the  same  template. 

Drifting  should  be  used  only  for  bringing  pieces  together 
preparatory  to  riveting.  After  part  of  the  rivets  are  in  place, 
drifting  may  injure  plates  and  rivets  by  causing  distortion. 
Pieces  should  be  kept  together  preparatory  to  riveting  by 
means  of  a  sufficient  number  of  temporary  bolts.  The  in- 
spector should  also  see  that  parts  inaccessible  after  riveting 
are  painted  at  least  one  coat  of  paint,  and  that  all  stiffeners 
fit  tight  and  good. 

After  riveting  each  rivet  is  tested  to  see  that  it  is  tightly 
driven  and  that  the  head  is  properly  formed. 

In  boring  and  facing  the  inspector  must  see  that  all  pin 
holes  are  of  the  proper  size  and  at  the  proper  distance  centre 
to  centre.  He  must  also  see  that  the  ends  of  pieces  are  prop- 
erly planed  to  the  required  bevels  and  that  the  lengths  of 
milled  end  pieces  are  correct. 


26  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

The  shop  inspector  marks  for  identification  all  the  pieces 
approved  by  him.  This  is  done  by  causing  some  mark  or 
initial  to  be  impressed  on  all  parts  approved  by  means  of  a 
special  inspector's  hammer.  A  circle  of  red  paint  around  the 
mark  will  make  it  easily  to  locate. 

ADDITIONAL  SHOP  AND  FIELD  OPERATIONS  AND 
THEIR  EFFECT  UPON  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

Heating.  Cast  iron  of  average  quality  is  slightly  affected 
by  heat  below  900°  F.  At  a  red  heat  it  looses  only  one  third  of 
its  strength.  Wrought  iron  and  steel  loose  no  sensible  por- 
tion of  their  ultimate  strength  up  to  about  500°  F.,  but  be- 
yond this  point  the.  strength  decreases  rapidly  with  the  in- 
crease in  temperature.  At  800°  F.,  both  steel  and  wrought 
iron  may  lose  one-fifth  of  their  ultimate  strength. 

Welding  consists  in  joining  together  two  pieces  of  metal 
with  the  aid  of  heat  and  that  of  hammering,  and  with  or  with- 
out the  use  of  a  flux.  Wrough  iron  is  the  easiest  iron  to 
weld  at  a  white  heat.  Steel  is  less  weldable  than  wrought 
iron  and  it  becomes  less  and  less  capable  of  welding,  the 
higher  its  carbon  content.  Cast  iron  is  not  weldable.  Weld- 
ing weakens  the  cross-section  of  a  bar  at  the  point  of  weld, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  often  specified  that  no  welding  shall 
be  allowed  in  any  steel  that  is  used  in  main  steel  structures. 
A  welded  bar  of  steel  or  wrought  iron  may  have  in  the  weld 
as  little  as  60%  of  the  strength  of  the  original  solid  bar. 

Forging  consists  in  raising  a  metal  to  a  high  temperature 
and  hammering  it  into  any  desired  form.  The  metal  must 
not  be  overheated  or  burned.  Overheating  lowers  both  the 
tensile  strength  and  the  ductility.  Steel  is  more  affected  by 
overheating  and  therefore  requires  more  care  than  wrought 
iron.  Either  metal,  however,  when  heated  fully,  should  be 
quickly  worked,  as  working  at  a  cool  stage  is  injurious. 

Steel  or  iron  worked  at  a  blue  heat,  or  at  about  600°  F. 
becomes  "blue  short"  or  brittle,  being  too  cold  to  be  ham- 
mered. A  simple  way  to  tell  when  a  bar  or  plate  is  too  cold 
to  be  hammered,  is  to  press  against  the  metal  a  piece  of  wood 
or  the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  hammer.  If  the  mark  thus 
made  on  the  metal  will  not  glow,  the  piece  must  be  reheated. 

Hardening  consists  in  heating  the  metal  to  a  red  heat 
and  then  in  cooling  it  rapidly,  by  plunging  into  oil,  water, 
brine  or  molten  lead.  The  quicker  the  heat  is  extracted  the 
harder  will  the  metal  be'.  Oil  extracts  the  heat  slower  than 
water ;  water  extracts  the  heat  slower  than  brine.  Hardening 
increases  the  ultimate  strength  as  shown  by  tests  if  the  load 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  27 

is  slowly  applied.  Hardening  also  increases  brittleness.  In 
order  to  make  the  metal  tough  enough  for  use  after  harden- 
ing, it  has  to  be  subjected  to  the  operation  of  "tempering." 
Steel  with  40%  carbon  can  be  hardened  sufficiently  to  cut  soft 
iron  and  maintain  an  edge. 

Tempering  consists  in  reheating  a  hardened  piece  of 
metal  to  a  certain  point  and  then  allowing  it  to  cool  by  plung- 
ing it  into  water.  When  a  hardened  steel  bar  is  reheated,  the 
hardness  decreases  as  the  heat  increases.  In  the  same  time 
various  colors  due  to  oxides  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  steel 
with  increasing  temperature  and  by  means  of  these  colors, 
the  heating  may  be  stopped  at  any  desired  point  and  the  cor- 
responding hardening  can  thus  be  obtained. 

Beginning  with  the  cold  metal,  the  tempers  of  different 
colors  are  sometimes  described  as  follows : 

Light  straw     Tr     ,  ,      ^       *  ^ 

Straw  Used  for  files,  lathe-tools,  etc. 

Light  brown      T.      ,  .       ,  .,, 

Darfepr  hmwn    L|  sed  for  dnlls>  reamers,  taps,  etc. 

Used  for  axes,  hatchets  and  tools. 


Darker  brown 

Brownish  blue 
or  pigeon  wing 


Light  blue     TT      ,   . 

Dark  blue       Used  for  sPrmSs- 

Both  tempering  and  hardening  cause  an  increase  in  the 
elastic  limit  and  ultimate  resistance,  and  a  decrease  in  ductil- 
ity. Both  processes  are  generally  used  in  making  steel  wire 
and  tools,  but  very  seldom  in  structural  work. 

Annealing  consists  in  heating  a  metal  object  throughout 
to  a  high  and  uniform  temperature,  and  then  allowing  it  to 
cool  uniformly  in  the  air. 

For  annealing  purposes  the  steel  is  generally  heated 
above  1000°  F.  It  is  then  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air  or  under 
a  muffle,  or  it  is  kept  in  the  heating  furnace,  but  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  same  is  gradually  reduced.  This  last  method  gives 
as  slow  a  cooling  process  as  may  be  desired. 

The  object  of  annealing  is  to  make  the  metal  uniform 
in  density  throughout.  When  a  piece  of  iron  is  hammered, 
bent,  or  upset,  the  uniform  density  of  the  metal  is  considerably 
changed  at  various  points  and  internal  stresses  are  the  result. 
Annealing  causes  the  various  minute  particles  of  metal  to 
readjust  themselves,  thus  reducing  and  perhaps  totally  ex- 
cluding internal  stresses. 

All  pieces  that  have  been  hammered,  bent  or  upset, 
should  be  annealed. 


28  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Punching  and  Shearing.  In  both  these  operations  the 
metal  is  subject  to  shearing  forces,  and  therefore  the  effects 
are  practically  the  same.  Punching  and  shearing  in  iron  and 
steel  cause  an  increase  in  the  elastic  limit  with  lower  ductility 
and  lower  ultimate  strength ;  consequently  both  processes  in- 
jure the  strength  of  the  metal. 

In  punching  and  shearing  minute  cracks  are  started  at  the 
edges  of  the  metal.  These  cracks  are  injurious  as  they  may 
extend  within  a  short  time  and  become  dangerous  before 
being  discovered.  They  also  reduce  the  ultimate  strength. 
In  the  same  time  the  disturbance  caused  by  shearing  hardens 
the  sheared  edges  and  this  explains  the  loss  of  ductility  and 
the  increase  in  elastic  limit. 

It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  the  shearing  process,  that 
thinner  plates  will  be  less  injured  than  heavier  plates.  Also, 
if  punches,  dies  and  shears  are  maintained  in  a  sharp  condition 
the  metal  will  be  more  cleanly  cut  and  there  will  be  less  cracks 
started. 

The  injurious  effects  caused  by  punching  and  shearing 
can  be  removed  by  annealing,  reaming  or  drilling.  For  ream- 
ing and  drilling,  the  rivet  holes  are  punched  y%  in.  smaller  in 
diameter  than  the  finished  holes;  then  by  means  of  a  cutting 
tool  or  a  drill  1/16  in.  is  removed  all  around  the  hole.  In  case 
of  sheared  plates  remove  1/16  in.  all  along  the  sheared  edges. 
Reaming  removes  almost  entirely  the  injurious  effects  caused 
by  punching  or  shearing  and  in  this  respect  is  superious  to  an- 
nealing. 

Wrought  iron  and  soft  steel  are  less  affected  by  punching 
and  shearing  than  the  higher  carbon  steel. 

Upsetting  is  the  operation  of  thickening  an  iron  bar  by 
hammering  back  against  its  end.  Upsetting" is  used  in  mak- 
ing eye  bar  heads.  The  end  of  the  bar  is  hammered,  then 
flattened,  and  finally  a  pin  hole  is  drilled  through.  In  riveting 
the  shank  or  body  of  the  rivet  is  upset  to  fill  the  hole  com- 
pletely and  then  to  form  the  new  head  from  the  remaining 
metal.  In  all  cases  of  upsetting  the  metal  to  be  upset  must 
be  heated  and  worked  at  a  temperature  high  enough  to  cause 
a  flow  without  bending  or  folding.  With  proper  care  upset- 
ting gives  satisfactory  results. 

Caulking.  When  two  pieces  of  metal  are  riveted  to- 
gether, the  operation  of  hammering  down  the  edges  of  one  of 
the  pieces  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them  slightly  pene- 
trate into  the  other  piece  is  called  caulking.  (Fig.  9). 

Caulking  is  an  approved  process  in  boiler  and  tank  work 
and  is  applied  to  both  rivets  and  plates,  in  order  to  secure  wa- 
ter tight  joints.  For  this  purpose  a  narrow,  blunt  chisel-like 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


29 


tool  called  a  caulking  tool  is  used.  This  tool  is  about  3/16  in. 
thick  at  the  end  and  ij^  in.  wide,  with  the  edge  ground  to  an 
angle  of  80°.  In  case  of  boiler  plates  these  are  usually  planed 
on  edge  to  a  bevel  of  about  75°  to  80°  to  facilitate  the  forcing 
down  of  the  edge.  As  shown  in  the  diagram  the  effect  of 
caulking  is  to  burr  down  the  plate  at  the  joint,  forming  a 
metal  to  metal  joint,  care  being  taken  not  to  damage  the 
plate  below  the  tool,  or  spring  the  joint  open.  Usually  both 


9—  Caulking. 


edges  C  and  D  are  caulked,  and  the  rivet  heads  also,  if  they 
leak  as  at  R.  Caulking  has  no  legitimate  use  in  structural 
work.  It  is  used  to  make  loose  rivets  appear  tight,  instead  of 
cutting  out  and  replacing  such  rivets.  It  is  also  used  when 
the  edges  of  the  rivet  head  are  not  quite  close  to  the  plates, 
or  when  an  opening  exists  between  the  plates  themselves.  The 
edge  of  the  rivet  head  is  usually  hammered  down  until  it  in- 
dents and  slightly  penetrates  the  surface  of  the  plate.  This 
makes  a  loose  rivet  appear  tight  when  tested  with  a  hammer. 
Close  inspection  should  detect  and  condemn  such  rivets. 


CHAPTER.  V. 

Riveting. 

A  Rivet  is  a  pin  of  metal  consisting  of  a  "head"  and  a 
"shank"  or  cylindrical  body  which  is  driven  through  two  or 
more  pieces  of  metal,  and  then  the  point  is  bent  or  spread  and 
beat  down  fast,  to  prevent  its  being  drawn  out. 

Material.  Rivets  are  usually  made  of  soft  steel  or 
wrought  iron.  Copper  rivets  are  sometimes  used  where  iron 
would  corrode  too  quickly.  The  steel  used  for  rivets  will 
generally  have  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  between  52,000 
and  60,000  tbs.  per  sq.  in.  In  such  steel  the  carbon  may  run 
down  to  .06  per  cent,  with  the  sulphur  between  .02  and  .03  per 
cent,  and  phosphorus  even  lower.  Rivet  steel  must  be  ductile 
and  tough  and  must  stand  well  the  effects  of  variations  in 
temperature.  Wrought  iron  rivets  are  less  affected  by  tem- 
perature than  steel  rivets.  In  driving  field  rivets  or  in  riveting 
done  after  the  parts  to  be  riveted  are  in  place,  the  usual  method 
is  to  heat  the  rivets  in  a  portable  forge  resting  upon  a  tem- 
porary platform  made  of  planks,  and  then  each  rivet  is 
thrown  through  the  air  to  the  riveters  at  the  various  points 
where  riveting  is  being  done.  While  the  rivet  is  thrown 
through  the  air  it  partly  cools  off.  Steel  rivets  may  thus 
cool  down  to  a  point  where  good  riveting  can  no  longer  be 
obtained,  while  if  the  steel  rivet  is  heated  in  the  forge  to  a 
slightly  higher  temperature  and  then  thrown  through  the  air, 
the  rivet  is  often  injured  and  the  steel  composing  it  is  red 
short  or  liable  to  crack  at  a  red  heat.  Wrought  iron  is  less 
liable  to  injury  from  overheating  and  is  less  affected  by  the 
drop  in  temperature  immediately  after  leaving  the  forge.  For 
these  reasons  wrought  iron  rivets  are  preferable  to  steel  rivets 
for  field  riveting. 

Manufacture.  Rivets  are  made  either  by  hand  or  by 
machinery.  They  are  indicated  by  means  of  their  length  and 
diameter.  The  length  of  a  rivet  is  the  length  of  its  shank 
when  cold,  and  does  not  include  the  head.  The  size  most 
commonly  used  is  £4  in.  diam.  rivet.  In  order  to  allow  the 
hot  rivet  to  enter  holes  easily  the  holes  are  punched  13/16  in. 
diam.  for  a  ^4  in.  rivet  and  in  general  1/16  in.  larger  than  the 
diameter  of  the  cold  rivet. 

The  hot  rivet  should  not  drop  into  the  hole.  It  should 
require  slight  pressure  to  put  it  in.  The  diameter  of  the  rivet 
holes  must  not  be  less  than  the  thickness  of  the  plate,  other- 


SHOP. 
Two  run  heads 

CountersunK  Far  Side, 
Near  Side 
Both  Sides 

Flattened  to  g"  Far  side 
Nearside 
BothSides 

Flattened  to  V  Far  Side 
NearSide 
Both  Sides 

Flattened  to  I"  Far  Side 
Nearside 

Both  Sides 
F  I  E  LD 
Two  full  heads. 

Count ersumK  Far  Side 
NearSide 
Both  Sides 


( 
( 


Fig    10 — Rivet    Sigrns. 


32  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

wise  the  punch  in  the  shop  is  liable  to  crush.  For  plates  less 
than  y%  in.  y^  in.  rivets  are  commonly  used ;  for  plates  y&  in. 
and  aver,  either  y^  in.  or  %  in.  rivets  are  used. 

The  length  of  the  rivet  depends  on  the  grip  or  total 
thickness  of  the  parts  joined  by  the  rivet,  and  on  the  number 
of  pieces  to  be  joined  by  the  same  rivets.  A  hot  rivet  has  a 
tendency  to  fill  up  any  slight  openings  between  the  plates 
through  which  it  passes.  Hence  to  find  the  length  of  the  cold 
rivet  add  to  the  grip  about  1/32  in.  for  each  opening  between 
plates;  then  add  about  ijHs  times  the  diameter  of  the  rivet  for 
the  new  head  and  about  8%  for  filling  up  the  hole  which  is 
slightly  larger  than  the  rivet.  For  instance,  to  join  two  ^4  m- 
plates  with  y^  in.  rivets  we  need  for : 

Inches. 

Grip   il/2 

Opening  between  plates  ....      1/32 
New  rivet  head,  i^jx£4 I  7/32 


to  this  add  about  8%  or  7/32  in.  and  this  gives  in  all  about  3 
in.  as  the  required  length  of  shank  for  the  cold  rivet.  The 
same  value  could  be  obtained  from  a  table  at  the  end  of  the 
volume  which  gives  the  length  of  rivet  shanks  to  the  nearest 
Y%  of  an  inch.  For  countersunk  rivets  add  only  one  half  the 
diameter  of  the  rivet  for  the  new  head.  No  rivets  should  be 
used  which  are  too  short ;  such  rivets  do  not  leave  sufficient 
material  for  the  new  head  and  the  usual  result  is  loose  rivets. 
Rivets  that  are  too  long  require  additional  hammering  and 
are  hard  to  make  tight. 

Form  of  Rivets.  There  are  in  use  several  forms  of 
rivets.  These  forms  are  generally  indicated  on  drawings  by 
the  conventional  signs  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

The  diameter  of  a  head  of  a  rivet,  when  such  head  is  fin- 
ished with  a  tool  called  a  "snap,"  should  be  about  one  and  a 
half  to  twice  the  diameter  of  the  shank. 

The  height  of  the  head  of  a  snap  finished  rivet  should  be 
about  three-fifths  the  diameter  of  the  shank. 

Fitting  Connections.  Before  riveting  the  two  or  more 
parts  which  are  joined  by  this  process  have  to  be  brought 
close  together  and  in  such  a  relative  position  that  the  cor- 
responding rivet  holes  should  match  as  nearly  perfect  as  pos- 
sible. In  connections  taking  in  a  large  number  of  rivets,  like 
column  splices  or  large  gusset  plates,  the  various  pieces  are 
made  to  match  by  hammering  the  buckled  or  bent  parts 
with  a  sledge  hammer  and  then  by  placing  temporary  bolts 
through  about  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  rivet  holes.  When 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  33 

these  bolts  are  made  tight,  all  the  holes  in  the  connection 
will  match,  if  the  shop  punching  was  carefully  done.  With 
careless  punching  some  of  the  holes  may  not  fall  fair  any- 
where from  1/32  in,  to  %  m-  and  more.  In  such  cases  the 
holes  are  made  fair  by  reaming,  using  either  hand  reaming  or 
machine  reaming.  Where  the  rivet  grip  is  to  be  two  or  more 
inches  machine  reaming  is  essential. 

It  is  a  common  practice  in  building  work  where  holes 
do  not  match  by  1/16  in.  or  a  little  more,  to  drive  a  drift  pin 
through  the  holes  and  make  them  match. 

A  drift  pin  is  a  round  piece  of  steel  made  slightly  taper- 
ing, and  should  be  used  only  for  easily  bringing  pieces  to- 
gether preparatory  to  riveting.  The  drift  pin  may  also  be 
used  in  correcting  burrs  and  in  smoothing  out  holes.  It 
should  not  be  used,  however,  to  enlarge  a  hole.  Forcing  a 
drift  pin  through  a  hole  injures  the  metal,  causing  a  harden- 
ing of  the  material  around  the  hole,  with  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  elastic  limit  and  a  decrease  in  ductility.  This 
is  considered  injurious,  and  good  specifications  prohibit  the 
use  of  drift  pins  for  enlarging  holes.  Instead  of  this,  ream- 
ing should  be  used  whenever  possible.  For  this  purpose 
compressed  air  reamers  are  employed  on  many  good  struc- 
tures. The  action  of  these  reamers  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
drill  of  large  diameter,  and  the  holes  are  made  perfectly 
smooth.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  that  one  or  more 
holes  have  been  omitted  by  mistake  in  some  of  the  parts  to 
be  riveted.  This  can  be  remedied  only  by  drilling  through 
the  blind  hole.  It  also  may  happen  that  the  men  in  the  shop 
have  punched  more  holes  than  required.  In  good  work  any 
hole  which  is  not  to  be  filled  in  by  a  rivet  or  bolt  is  plugged 
up  with  lead.  This  prevents  corrosion  to  a  certain  extent; 
it  also  fills  up  the  cross  section,  which  is  desirable  in  com- 
pression members. 

Riveters.  The  work  of  fitting  up  connections  is  partly 
done  by  "fitters"  and  partly  by  the  riveting  gang.  A  riveting 
gang  consists  usually  of  four  men,  i.  e.,  heater,  passer,  holder 
up,  and  riveter.  Such  a  gang  will  drive  about  250  rivets  in 
a  day  of  eight  hours.  Each  man  gets  about  five  dollars  a  day, 
and  adding  to  this  the  cost  of  supervision  and  of  the  mate- 
rials, together  with  the  depreciation  of  tools,  etc.,  the  cost 
of  field  rivets  will  not  be  far  from  ten  cents  apiece.  Where 
two  or  more  riveting  gangs  are  employed  there  is  usually  a 
boss  riveter  and  fitter,  at  about  six  dollars  a  day,  who  is 
responsible  to  his  superintendent  for  the  work  done  by  the 
riveting  gangs  and  fitters. 

Tools  and  Instruments  Used  in  Riveting.  Following 
are  the  essential  parts  of  a  riveting  outfit : 


34  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

The  forge  for  heating  rivets. 

A  dolly  bar  for  backing  up  the  old  rivet  head  while  the 
new  one  is  being  formed.  The  dolly  is  a  round  iron  bar,  with 
one  end  hollowed  out,  or  cup-shaped,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
fit  the  rivet  head.  A  dolly  bar  weighs  from  15  to  25  pounds. 

The  snap  is  a  hollowed  out  or  cup-shaped  hammer  used 
for  forging  the  heads. 

The  forging  hammer  is  used  in  hand  riveting  for  upset- 
ting the  shank  or  the  red  hot  rivet  and  for  roughly  shaping 
a  new  head.  Forging  hammers  usually  weigh  about  five 
pounds  each. 

In  hand  riveting,  after  the  new  head  has  been  shaped 
roughly  with  the  hammer,  one  of  the  men,  usually  the  rivet 
"passer,"  holds  a  snap  against  the  rough  rivet  head  while  the 
riveter  strikes  a  few  good  blows  on  this  snap.  This  gives  the 
rivet  head  a  spherical  form. 

A  portable  air  compressor,  popularly  known  as  a  "gun," 
is  used  for  riveting  in  work  where  machine  riveting  is  re- 
quired. The  shape  of  the  driving  hammer  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  snap.  Hence  no  extra  snap  is  used  in  machine  rivet- 
ing, the  rivet  head  being  formed  and  made  spherical  in  one 
operation. 

The  buster  is  a  blunt-faced  hammer  having  a  cutting 
edge  used  in  shearing  off  the  heads  of  rivets. 

After  the  head  of  a  defective  rivet  has  been  cut  off,  the 
balance  of  the  rivet  is  driven  out  from  the  hole  by  means 
of  a  special  hammer  having  a  tapering  head.  This  hammer 
is  known  as  the  backing-out  punch. 

Drift  pin  is  a.  round  piece  of  steel,  slightly  tapered,  and 
used  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  pieces  together  so  as  to 
make  the  holes  match  preparatory  to  riveting.  Each  rivet- 
ing gang  is  provided  with  several  drift  pins. 

A  ten-pound  sledge  hammer  is  used  in  straightening  out 
all  lugs  and  splice  plates  which  have  been  buckled  or  dis- 
torted during  shipping  or  during  erection. 

The  sledge  hammer  is  further  used  in  connection  with 
backing  out  punches,  busters,  etc.  It  is  also  used  with  snaps 
to  form  cup-shaped  rivet  heads,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  cupping  hammer. 

The  ratchet  is  a  portable  hand  drill  used  for  making  holes 
on  the  job  where  same  have  been  omitted. 

The  steamboat  ratchet  is  a  turn-buckle  device  to  which 
cables  are  attached.  It  is  used  for  bringing  up  or  pulling 
columns  into  a  plumb  position. 

We  may  add  to  this  list  bolts,  rivets,  washers,  fillers, 
and  other  minor  parts.  Each  gang  is  further  provided  with 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  35 

several  planks  for  a  temporary  scaffold   and  with   ropes  or 
chains  for  fastening  their  scaffold  to  the  steel  work. 

Heating  Rivets.  Good  riveting  depends  to  a  consider- 
able extent  upon  the  care  used  in  heating.  Rivets  carelessly 
heated  may  burn ;  this  greatly  reduces  the  strength  of  the 
rivet.  In  addition,  after  the  rivet  is  driven  there  is  no  way 
of  telling  whether  the  rivet  was  burnt  or  not,  as  the  head 
may  look  good  while  the  shank  is  weak  and  brittle. 

Steel  rivets  should  be  heated  uniformly  to  a  dull  red ; 
the  orange  color  must  not  be  passed.  The  rivets  should  be 
put  in  place  as  soon  as  they  reach  this  temperature  and  should 
be  worked  as  quickly  as  possible.  No  steel  rivet  should  be 
worked  at  a  blue  heat. 

With  machine  driven  rivets  the  point  of  the  rivet  is  often 
heated  more  than  the  head.  This  facilitates  the  upsetting 
and  flowing  of  the  rivet  metal  into  the  hole.  When  the 
riveting  is  done  by  hand  the  pressure  made  to  bear  upon 
the  rivet  through  successive  blows  is  considerably  smaller. 
Hence  the  rivet  should  be  heated  uniformly,  or  the  head 
should  be  even  hotter  than  the  point,  otherwise  the  blows 
which  will  upset  the  rivet  and  make  it  fill  the  hole  near  the 
point  will  have  little  effect  at  the  other  end,  and  the  rivet 
may  not  quite  fill  the  hole  near  the  original  head. 

Iron  rivets  can  be  heated  without  serious  injury  even  to 
a  "wash"  or  "waste"  heat,  which  is  reached  when  the  slag 
in  the  metal  begins  to  soak  out.  Like  steel  rivets,  iron  rivets 
should  not  be  worked  at  a  blue  heat. 

The  following  additional  rules  if  followed  will  con- 
tribute towards  good  riveting: 

1.  The  forge  used  for  heating  the  rivets  should  be  placed 
as  near  to  the  point  of  use  as  practicable. 

2.  Only  a  few  rivets  should  be  placed  in  the  fire  at  a 
time,  otherwise  some  are  liable  to  be  left  in  too  long  and 
be  burnt. 

3.  When  the  rivets  are  too  long  it  sometimes  happens 
that   the   heater   will   burn   the   points   on   purpose,   just   to 
shorten  the  shank.     This  is  bad  practice  and   should   never 
be  allowed. 

4.  Re-driving  cold  rivets  injures  the  heads  and  should 
be  prohibited. 

5.  Caulking  of  rivet   heads  may   injure   both   the   rivet 
and  the  plate,  and  has  no  excuse  in  structural  work.     It  is 
used  to  make  loose  rivets  appear  tight,  and   should   not  be 
permitted.      All   caulked    rivets   should    be   cut   out   and    re- 
placed. 


36  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

6."  Rivets  should  not  be  heated  several  times,  nor  should 
they  be  allowed  to  remain  too  long  in  the  forge.  In  both 
cases  a  chemical  action  of  decarbonization  and  oxidation 
takes  place,  and  this  may  injure  the  rivet  when  prolonged. 

Riveting  may  be  defined  as  the  process  of  passing  a  hot 
rivet  through  holes  in  pieces  to  be  united  and  of  forging 
another  head  from  the  projecting  shank.  It  is  generally  per- 
formed by  means  of  air,  steam  or  water  power  machines,  or 
by  hand. 

Hand  Riveting.  In  this  kind  of  work  the  red  hot  rivet 
is  passed  through  the  hole;  it  is  then  held  up  in  place  by 
means  of  the  iron  bar  called  "dolly."  This  bar  is  hollowed 
out  at  one  end  in  the  form  of  a  cup  that  fits  on  the  rivet 
head.  The  dolly  is  pressed  against  the  rivet  head  by  one 
of  the  men,  the  "holder  up,"  and  in  the  same  time  the  shank 
is  upset  by  the  riveter,  who  uses  a  forging  hammer  with  a 
flat  face.  The  end  of  the  rivet  is  roughly  hammered  to  a 
convex  point.  It  is  then  finished  or  rounded  up,  just  as  the 
rivet  loses  its  red  heat,  by  placing  a  "snap,"  or  hollowed 
steel  tool,  against  the  rivet  head,  and  by  striking  a  few  blows 
with  a  heavy  sledge  hammer. 

Machine  riveting  is  performed  by  pneumatic,  steam  or 
hydraulic  riveting  machines.  It  is  better  and  generally 
cheaper  than  hand  riveting.  The  practically  steady  pressure 
brought  by  the  machine  upon  the  rivet  enlarges  the  shank 
and  squeezes  it  into  the  hole,  thus  thoroughly  filling  up  all 
the  irregularities  of  the  hole,  in  addition  to  forming  the 
new  head. 

Machine  driven  rivets  can  be  easily  distinguished  from 
hand  driven  rivets.  In  the  first  case  the  rivet  head  is  smooth 
and  more  regular,  with  exception  of  a  slight  burr  which 
is  often  found  on  the  new  head  and  which  is  due  to  the 
die  having  caught  the  rivet  a  little  off  the  centre.  Further- 
more, machine  driven  rivets  will  generally  fill  up  all  the 
irregularities  of  the  hole;  when  such  rivets  have  to  be  cut 
out,  after  chipping  off  one  head,  the  Jpalance  of  the  rivet 
can  be  pushed  out  only  by  means  of  a  pin  and  hammer,  and 
with  great  difficulty,  while  in  some  instances  the  rivet  will 
have  to  be  drilled  out. 

In  hand  riveting  when  one  head  is  cut  off  the  shank  can 
be  driven  out  easily,  or  it  will  actually  drop  out.  This  shows 
how  little  hand  riveting  fills  up  the  irregularities  of  the  hole 
as  compared  to  machine  work.  Hand  driven  rivets  also  have 
their  heads  covered  with  marks  made  by  the  hammer  and 
by  the  shifting  of  the  snap  during  forging. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  37 

In  comparing  machine  with  hand  riveting,  we  may  note 
the  following  points  to  the  advantage  of  machine  work : 

1.  In  machine  riveting  the  holes  are  better  filled. 

2.  The  rivet  is  more  quickly  headed,   due  to   a  larger 
pressure,  hence  there  are,  as  a  rule,  less  loose  rivets  than 
with  hand  riveting. 

3.  The  work  is  more  uniform  and  more  reliable. 

4.  Machine  riveting  is  generally  cheaper. 

Shop  and  Field  Rivets.  Hand  riveting  done  in  the  shop 
is  generally  stronger  and  better  than  field  riveting  done  in 
the  same  manner.  With  machine  riveting  and  good  super- 
vision there  is  little  difference  if  any  between  shop  and  field 
work.  Some  specifications  require  ten  per  cent,  more  field 
rivets  than  shop  rivets  for  the  same  connection,  when  driven 
by  machine  in  the  field,  and  twenty-five  per  cent,  more 
when  driven  by  hand.  Machine  rivets  are  more  uniform  in 
strength  than  hand  driven  rivets. 

There  are  several  causes  which  tend  to  make  shop  rivet- 
ing better  than  field  work : 

1.  Parts   to   be   riveted   together   can   be  handled   more 
conveniently   in   the   shop. 

2.  The  heating  of  the  rivets  is  done  under  more  favor- 
able conditions  and  close  to  the  riveting  machine. 

3.  Powerful    stationary   riveting    machines    are     some- 
times used.     These  are  definite  in  their  action   and   results 
and  will  generally  turn   out  better  work  than  the  portable 
field  riveting  machines. 

4.  The  conditions  of  inspecting  the  work  in  the  shop 
are  more  favorable.     This  results  in  better  inspection. 

5.  The  stock  of  rivets  kept  in  the  shop  is,  as  a  rule, 
considerably  larger  than  that  kept  on  the  job.     This  avoids 
the  use  of  short  rivets  when  the  rivets  of  proper  length  do 
not  arrive  on  time,  as  it  sometimes  happens  in  field  work. 

The  New. York  Building  Code  allows  for  steel  rivets  in 
shear  a  unit  stress  of  10,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  shop 
rivets,  and  only  8,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  field  rivets. 
This  gives  for  a  ^-inch  shop  rivet  4418  pounds  shearing  re- 
sistance, while  the  corresponding  value  for  field  work  would 
only  be  3534  pounds.  With  "good  field  riveting,  however, 
4000  pounds  per  ^-inch.  rivet  in  shear  may  be  safely  as- 
sumed. 

Rivets  vs.  Bolts.  Good  riveting  is  better  than  bolting  for 
the  following  reasons : 


38  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

1.  The  rivet  is  forced   into  the  hole  and   fills  it  com- 
pletely.     This    adds    strength    in   the    case    of     compression 
members. 

2.  Riveting    furnishes    a   more    rigid    connection     than 
bolting.     For  this   consideration   riveting  is   generally   used 
in  column  splices. 

3.  The  rivet  heads  upon  cooling  draw  the  riveted  parts 
more  firmly  together. 

4.  Each  rivet  filling  its  hole,  moisture  cannot  work  its 
way  into  the  joint;  thus  deterioration  through  rust  around 
a  rivet  is  prevented  or  delayed. 

5.  Stresses    are    likely   to    be    more    evenly    distributed 
among  a  number  of  rivets  than  among  the  same  number  of 
bolts.     To  illustrate  this,  consider  a  hanger  A  (Fig.  n)  con- 
nected to  the  web  of  a  channel  B  by  means  of  two  24-inch 


Fig:.    11— Bolted 
Hanger. 

bolts.  The  bolt  C  was  first  put  in.  The  second  bolt  hole 
in  the  plate  was  punched  1/16  of  an  inch  too  high.  The 
lower  hole  was  elongated  and  the  bolt  D  was  put  in,  but  as 
shown  in  the  diagram  this  bolt  takes  no  load  in  shear  and 
hence  the  upper  bolt  may  be  overloaded.  The  only  use  of 
bolt  D  is  to  slightly  prevent  the  downward  motion  of  the 
hanger  through  the  friction  caused  by  making  this  bolt  tight. 
By  using  rivets,  although  the  lower  holes  do  not  match,  the 
upset  shanks  will  completely  fill  the  hole  spaces,  and  both 
rivets  will  share  more  evenly  in  resisting  the  shear  due  to 
the  load  supported  by  the  hanger. 

It  often  happens  that  splices  in  columns  along  the  walls 
cannot  be  conveniently  riveted  on  account  of  lack  of  room. 
In  such  cases  the  adjoining  wall  may  sometimes  be  broken 
off  for  one  or  two  feet  next  to  the  column  splice,  thus  mak- 
ing riveting  possible.  Where  the  adjoining  walls  are 
weak,  and  where  breaking  into  them  may  render  such  walls 
unsafe,  as  many  of  the  holes  as  are  not  accessible  for  riveting 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  39 

are  either  provided  with  24-inch  bolts  or  else  such  holes  are 
"plugged  up"  by  driving  through  them  red  hot  rivets  and 
then  upsetting  the  shank  by  means  of  a  small  hand  hammer, 
or  by  using  one  end  of  a  dolly  bar.  Where  bolts  are  used 
they  should  b«  made  tight,  and  then  the  thread  of  each  bolt 
should  be  checked  or  distorted  in  order  to  prevent  the  loosen- 
ing of  the  bolt.  From  what  was  stated  before,  it  is  obvious 
that  rivets  in  plugged  up  holes,  although  not  good  looking 
and  with  a  non-snapped  head,  are  often  preferable  to  -)4-mcri 
bolts  in  i3/i6-inch  holes. 

Specifications.  Riveting  is  more  expensive  than  bolting, 
but  riveted  joints  lend  to  a  steel  structure  the  rigidity  which 
is  essential  to  the  safety  and  durability  of  the  finished  build- 
ing. Where  rigidity  is  lacking,  the  ceilings  may  crack,  the 
walls  may  open,  and  the  whole  structure  may  become  un- 
safe and  useless  in  a  comparatively  short  time.  The  atten- 
tion paid  to  rigidity  depends  mainly  upon  the  purpose  and 
the  proportions  of  the  structure.  A  very  narrow  and  tall 
building  will  have  to  have  strong,  rigid  joints  to  resist  the 
effect  of  wind  pressure.  A  structure  used  for  manufacturing 
purposes  where  heavy  machinery  is  employed  requires  rigid 
connections  to  resist  the  effect  of  accumulated  vibrations 
due  to  repeated  pounding  of  such  machinery. 

For  buildings  used  for  printing  presses  or  similar  heavy 
machinery  the  specifications  usually  require  all  connections 
to  be  riveted. 

In  loft  and  office  buildings  it  is  customary  to  have  all 
column  splices  and  all  connections  of  beams  to  columns  or 
beams  to  beams  within  3'-o"  from  a  column,  riveted ;  all  other 
connections  bolted.  There  is  nothing  in  the  New  York  Build- 
ing Code  that  requires  riveted  field  connections  in  structural 
work,  with  the  exception  of  a  minor  restriction  shown  in  the 
difference  between  the  allowable  working  stresses  for  field 
rivets  and  field  bolts.  The  Building  Code  allows,  i.  e.,  in 
shear : 

For  field  rivets,  8000  pounds  per  square  inch,  which 
amounts  to  3534  pounds  for  a  ^4-inch  rivet. 

For  field  bolts,  7000  pounds  per  square  inch,  which 
amounts  to  3372  pounds  for  a  «}4-mcn  -bolt. 

The  rivets  and  bolts  being  steel. 

This  shows  that  about  14  per  cent,  more  field  bolts  than 
field  rivets  are  required  in  a  connection  to  comply  with  the 
law.  In  the  case  of  a  twelve-story  loft  building  where  this 
condition  was  fulfilled  with  regard  to  column  splices,  and 
where  the  iron  erector  was  given  the  choice  between  bolting 
and  riveting  at  the  same  price,  he  chose  bolting.  Bolting 


40  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

column   splices  in  anything  like  a  twelve-story  loft   is   con- 
sidered poor  practice  and  should  not  be  encouraged. 

Faking  Riveting  Work.  Poor  field  riveting  may  naturally 
be  expected  from  men  who  just  start  into  this  kind  of  work 
and  who  have  little  experience  in  overcoming  difficulties  and 
new  conditions  which  constantly  arise  before  them.  Most 
or  the  defective  work,  however,  is  due  to  carelessness,  lack  of 
active  supervision  and  unreasonable  speed,  caused  by  a  de- 
sire of  some  gang  to  turn  out  more  work  than  other  gangs 
in  the  same  time,  or  by  the  compelling  action  of  some  fore- 
men or  superintendents,  who  will  discharge  a  gang  doing 
first  rate  work  when  the  number  of  rivets  driven  in  a  given 
time  falls  below  their  expectation.  Poor  work  is  sometimes 
due  to  defective  tools,  to  holes  not  matching  correctly,  to 
driving  rivets  through  such  holes  without  reaming,  and  to 
using  rivets  of  improper  lengths.  Defective  work  may  also 
be  caused  through  careless  heating,  slow  and  careless  driv- 
ing, improper  backing  up  and  so  on. 

Most  of  these  faults  are  manifested  in  the  finished  rivets, 
either  through  unsatisfactory  size  and  shape  of  the  new 
rivet  head  or  through  the  loose  condition  of  the  rivet. 

Faking  generally  consists  in  making  a  loose  rivet  appear 
tight  under  a  hammer  test.  Here  are  some  of  the  common 
ways: 

1.  By  going  around  the  head -of  the  rivet  with  a  caulking 
tool.    This  will  make  the  rivet  sound  all  right,  and  the  mark 
due  to  caulking  will  generally  not  be  noticed  unless  carefully 
looked  for. 

2.  By  driving  over  the  cold  rivet  heads,  using  a  smaller 
snap. 

3.  By  hammering  or  in  any  way  deforming  the  original 
heads  of  the  cold  rivets.     There  is  absolutely  no  reason  for 
such   action,  and   any   such   rivets   should   be   regarded   with 
suspicion. 

4.  By   placing  the   snap   sideways   upon   the   rivet   and 
striking  it  a  few  good  blows  with  a  sledge  hammer.     The 
snap  is  usually  applied  below  the  head,  where  it  cuts  a  ridge 
in   the   plate   and   makes  the   rivet   appear   tight   by   forcing 
part  of  the  plate  metal  under  the  head. 

A  similar  action  takes  place  in  machine  riveting  when, 
after  driving  all  rivets  in  a  given  splice,  the  riveter  goes 
over  loose  rivets  with  his  riveting  machine  and  re-drives  the 
cold  rivet  heads.  This  usually  results  into  forming  a  groove 
or  circle  all  around  the  rivet  head.  In  few  cases  such  a  groove 
or  a  snap  mark  as  above  described  may  be  formed  in  driving 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  41 

a  perfectly  tight  rivet,  and  due  judgment  is  necessary  in  con- 
demning defective  rivets. 

It  is  a  good  policy  to  dismiss  any  gang  of  riveters  which 
persistently  continues  to  do  poor  work. 

Testing  Rivets.  Complete  rivet  testing  involves  a  test  of 
the  rivet  metal  for  tensile  strength,  bending  and  ductility. 
In  addition,  the  riveting  inspector  must  observe  the  following 
points: 

1.  The  rivet  holes  must  match  correctly. 

2.  All  rivets  must  be  heated  properly. 

3.  Each   rivet   must   be   of   sufficient   length   to   fill   the 
hole  completely. 

4.  The  edges  of  the  rivet  heads  must  be  free  from  caulk- 
ing marks. 

5.  The  plate  metal  around  the  head  should  be  free  from 
any  ridge  or  impress. 

6.  Both  rivet  heads  should  fit  tight  against  the  plates. 

7.  The  rivet  heads  should  be  free  from  cracks. 

8.  The  rivet  heads  should  be  concentric. 

9.  The  rivet  heads  should  be  of  full  size. 

r*  » 

Loose  rivets  are  easily  detected  by  means  of  one  or  two 
blows  struck  with  a  one-pound  hammer  upon  the  rivet  head. 
In  case  of  rivets  driven  horizontally  in  a  column  splice,  for 
instance,  strike  one  blow  downward  against  the  head  of  the 
rivet  at  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees  to  the  length  of  the 
rivet ;  then  strike  a  symmetrical  blow  upward.  If  the  rivet 
is  loose  a  jar  or  rattle  will  be  produced.  By  holding  one 
finger  against  one  head  while  the  other  head  is  struck  with 
the  hammer  even  the  slightest  jar  can  be  easily  detected. 
In  absence  of  a  hammer,  any  piece  of  iron,  even  a  cold  rivet, 
may  be  used  to  perform  this  test. 

Rivets  are  easier  to  examine  before  being  painted ;  for 
this  reason  it  is  customary  in  good  work  not  to  paint  any 
column  splices  until  all  rivets  have  been  approved  by  the 
inspector. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Specifications. 

Plans  and  specifications  for  each  particular  construction 
must  be  the  inspectors  and  builders'  guides  for  the  quality 
of  the  materials  used  as  well  as  for  the  grade  of  workmanship 
required.  Specifications  must  be  definite,  concise  and  clear, 
and  must  not  contain  anything  contrary  to  law.  In  most 
cases  the  specifications  are  separate  from  the  plans ;  for  small 
jobs,  however,  the  entire  specifications  may  be  written  on 
one  or  all  of  the  plans.  Good  specifications  will  carefully 
take  up  all  the  requirements  of  the  architect  or  engineer  in 
relation  to  the  quality  of  material,  shop-work  and  erection,  as 
well  as  shop  and  field  inspection. 

Following  are  some  of  the  main  points  to  be  considered 
in  drawing  up  specifications : 

1.  QUALITY  OF  MATERIALS.    This  includes  : 

(a)  Finish.     All  material   should  be   free  from   surface 
defects  and  should  possess  an  excellent  finish. 

(b)  Weight.    Any  member  lacking  in  weight  more  than 
2^2  per  cent,  may  be  rejected. 

(c)  Manufacture.     All   steel   to  be   made  by  the   open 
hearth  process;  all  material  should  be  uniform;  all  cast  iron 
satisfactory. 

(d)  Physical  Properties.    Rivets  should  be  made  of  soft 
or  low  carbon  steel.    All  other  steel  should  be  of  the  medium 
grade.    Specify  the  number  of  test  specimens  required  for  the 
various  physical  tests,  the  elastic  limit,  the  ultimate  strength 
and  the  per  cent,   elongation.     Specify  how   test   specimens 
should  be  collected  and  tested. 

(e)  Chemical  Properties.     Steel  having  a  definite  chem- 
ical  composition  will  usually  have   certain   definite  physical 
properties.     Where  the  physical   requirements   are   specified 
in  detail,  do  not  specify  also  the  chemical  composition.    Arbi- 
trary physical  and  chemical  requirements  can  not  always  be 
obtained  in  the  same  specimens.    The  most  that  could  be  done 
is  to   specify  that   certain   deleterious   substances   like  phos- 
phorus and  sulphur  should  not  exceed  a  certain  percentage. 

2.  SHOPWORK.    This  takes  in: 

(a)    Correct  Dimensions.     All  members  must  be  of  cor- 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  43 

rect  length  in  accordance  with  plans  approved  by  the  archi- 
tect. 

(b)  Punching.     The  diameter  of  the  die  should  not  ex- 
ceed the  diameter  of  the  punch  by  more  than  i/i6-inch. 

(c)  Straightening.     Before  assembling  each  piece  should 
be  made  straight. 

(d)  Assembling.    A  sufficient  number  of  temporary  bolts 
should  be  used. 

(e)  Reaming.     To  be  performed  to  make  all  holes  true 
before  riveting. 

(f)  Riveting.     To  be  done  right,  and  all  defective  rivets 
to  be  replaced. 

(g)  Painting.     All  metal  to  be  cleaned  from  rust  before 
painting.     Specify  the  paint 'to  be  used. 

3.  ERECTION.     This  should  cover : 

(a)  Safety.     All  accident  liabilities  to  be  taken  by  the 
builder. 

(b)  Bracing.     All  necessary  temporary  bracing  and  guy- 
ing to  be  provided. 

(c)  Connections.      All  connections,  whether  riveted  or 
bolted,  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  specifications. 

(d)  Overloading.     Floors  or  other  parts  of  the  structure 
should  at  no  time  be  overloaded. 

(e)  Painting.    All  accessible  parts  to  be  properly  painted 
with  the  kind  of  paint  specified  for  the  purpose. 

(f)  Workmanship.    To  be  in  accordance  with  good  prac- 
tice, and  satisfactory  to  the  architect. 

4.  SHOP  AND  FIELD  INSPECTION.     Here  should 
be  provided  that : 

(a)  All  reasonable  facilities  should  be  provided  for  in- 
spectors for  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

(b)  Rejection.      The  architect's  inspector  should  have 
the  authority  to  reject  defective  materials  and  workmanship. 

(c)  Any  disputes  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  specifications 
between  the  architect's  inspector  and  the  builder  should  be 
referred  at  once  to  the  architect  for  final  consideration. 

The  following  specifications  take  up  the  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  steel  and  cast  iron,  together  with  the 
requirements  relating  to  finish,  manufacture  and  variations 
in  weight: 


44  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

MANUFACTURER'S  STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS. 

Revised  to  February  6,  1903. 


STRUCTURAL  STEEL. 

1.  Process  of  Manufacture.    Steel  may  be  made  by  either 
the  Open  Hearth  or  Bessemer  Process. 

2.  Testing  and  Inspection.    All  tests  and  inspections  shall 
be  made  at  the  place  of  manufacture  prior  to  shipment. 

3.  Test  Pieces.    The  tensile  strength,  limit  of  elasticity 
and  ductility  shall  be  determined  from  a  standard  test  piece 
cut  from  the  finished  material.     The  standard  shape  of  the 
test  piece  for  sheared  plates  shall  be  as  shown  by.  the  follow- 
ing sketch :    See  Fig.  8. 

On  tests  cut  from  other  material  the  test  piece  may  be 
either  the  same  as  for  sheared  plates,  or  it  may  be  planed  or 
turned  parallel  throughout  its  entire  length,  and  in  all  cases 
where  possible  two  opposite  sides  of  the  test  piece  shall  be 
the  rolled  surfaces.  The  elongation  shall  be  measured  on  an 
original  length  of  8  inches,  except  as  modified  in  section  12, 
paragraph  c.  Rivet  rounds  and  small  bars  shall  be  tested 
of  full  size  as  rolled. 

Two  test  pieces  shall  be  taken  from  each  melt  or  blow 
of  finished  material,  one  for  tension  and  one  for  bending;  but 
in  case  either  test  develops  flaws,  or  the  tensile  test  piece 
breaks  outside  of  the  middle  third  of  its  gauged  length,  it  may 
be  discarded  and  another  test  piece  substituted  therefor. 

4.  Annealed  Test  Pieces.    Material  which  is  to  be  used 
without  annealing  or  further  treatment  shall  be  tested  in  the 
condition  in  which  it  comes  from  the  rolls.     When  material 
is  to  be  annealed  -or  otherwise  treated  before  use,  the  speci- 
men  representing   such    material    shall   be    similarly   treated 
before  testing. 

5.  Marking.        Every   finished    piece    of    steel    shall   be 
stamped  with  the  blow  or  melt  number,  and  steel  for  pins 
shall  have  the  blow  or  melt  number  stamped  on  the  ends. 
Rivet  and  lacing  steel,  and  small  pieces  for  pin  plates  and 
stiffeners,    may    be    shipped    in    bundles    securely    wired    to- 
gether, with  the  blow  or  melt  number  on  a  metal  tag  attached. 

6.  Finish.     Finished   bars   shall  be  free  from   injurious 
seams,  flaws  or  cracks,  and  have  a  workmanlike  finish. 

7.  Chemical  Properties.     Steel  for  buildings,  train  sheds, 
highway  bridges  and  similar  structures  shall  not  contain  more 
than  0.10%  of  phosphorus.    Steel  for  railway  bridges  shall  not 
contain  more  than  0.08%  of  phosphorus. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  45 

8  Physical  Properties.  Structural  Steel  shall  be  of 
three  grades,  RIVET,  RAILWAY  and  MEDIUM. 

9.  Rivet   Steel.     Ultimate    strength,    48,000    to    58,000 
pounds  per  sq.  inch.     Elastic  limit,  not  less  than  one-half  the 

ultimate  strength. 

1,400.000 

Percentage  of  elongation,  - 

Ultimate  strength. 

Bending  test,  180  degrees  flat  on  itself,  without  fracture 
on  outside  of  bent  portion. 

10.  Steel  for  Railway  Bridges.     Ultimate  strength,  55,- 
ooo  to  65,000  pounds  per  sq.  inch.    Elastic  limit,  not  less  than 
one-half  the  ultimate  strength. 

1,400.000 

Percentage  of  elongation,  - 

Ultimate  strength. 

Bending  test,  180  degrees  to  a  diameter  equal  to  thickness 
of  piece  tested,  without  fracture  on  outside  of  bent  portion. 

11.  Medium  Steel.     Ultimate  strength,  60,000  to  70,000 
pounds  per  sq.  inch.     Elastic  limit  not  less  than  one-half  the 
ultimate  strength. 

1,400.000 

Percentage  of  elongation,  - 

Ultimate  strength. 

Bending  test,  180  degrees  to  a  diameter  equal  to  thick- 
ness of  piece  tested,  without  fracture  on  outside  of  bent 
portion. 

12.  Modifications  in  Elongation  for  Thin  and  Thick  Ma- 
terial.    For  material  less  than  5/16  inch,  and  more  than  ^ 
inch  in  thickness,  the  following  modifications  shall  be  made 
in  the  requirements  for  elongation : 

a.  For  each  increase  of  J/s  inch  in  thickness  above  $4 
inch,  a  deduction  of  i%  shall  be  made  from  specified  elonga- 
tion, except  that  the  minimum  elongation  shall  be  20%  for 
eye-bar  material  and  18%  for  other  structural  material. 

b.  For  each  decrease  of   1/16  inch  in  thickness  below 
5/16  inch,  a  deduction  of  2.y2  per  cent,  shall  be  made  from  the 
specified  elongation. 

c.  In  rounds  of  ^  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  the  elonga- 
tion shall  be  measured  in  a  length  equal  to  eight  times  the 
diameter  of  section  tested. 

d.  For  pins   made  from   any   of    the    before-mentioned 
grades  of  steel,  the  required  elongation  shall  be  5  Per  cent, 
less  than  that  specified  for  each  grade,  as  determined  on  a 
test  piece,  the  center  of  which  shall  be  one  inch  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  bar. 


46  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

13.  Variation  in  Weight.  The  variation  in  cross-sec- 
tion or  weight  of  more  than  2^/2  per  cent,  from  that  specified 
will  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection,  except  in  the  case  of 
sheared  plates  which  will  be  covered  by  the  following  per- 
missible variations : 

a.  Plates  12^  pounds  per  sq.  foot  or  heavier,  up  to  100 
inches  wide,  when  ordered  to  weight,  shall  not  average  more 
than  2^/2  per  cent,  variation  above  or  2^/2  per  cent,  below  the 
theoretical  weight.    When  100  inches  wide  and  over,  5%  above 
or  5%  below  the  theoretical  weight. 

b.  Plates  under  12^  pounds  per  sq.  foot  when  ordered 
to  weight,  shall  not  average  a  greater  variation  than  the  fol- 
lowing: Up  to  75  inches  wide,  2.y2  per  cent,  above  or  2^/2  per 
cent,  below  the  theoretical  weight;  75  inches  wide  up  to  100 
inches  wide  5%  above  or  3%  below  the    theoretical    weight. 
When  100  inches  wide  and  over,  10  per  cent,  above  or  3  per 
cent,  below  the  theoretical  weight. 

c.  For  all  plates  ordered  to  gauge,  there  will  be  per- 
mitted an  average  excess  of  weight  over  that  corresponding 
to  the  dimensions  on  the  order,  equal  in  amount  to  that  speci- 
fied in  the  following  table : 


Table  of  Allowances  for  Overweight  for  Rectangular  Plates 
When  Ordered  to  Gauge. 

Plates  will  be  considered  up  to  gauge  if  measuring  not 
over  i/ioo  inch  less  than  the  ordered  gauge.  The  weight  of 
i  cubic  inch  of  rolled  steel  is  assumed  to  be  0.2833  pound. 


PLATES  %  IN.  AND  OVER  IN  THICKNESS. 


Width 

of  Plate 

Plate. 

Up  to  75  Inches. 

75  to  100  Ins. 

Over  100  to  115 

Over  115  Inches. 

In  Inches. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

ins.     Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

% 

10 

14 

18 

. 

A 

8 

12 

16 

— 

% 

7 

10 

13 

17 

ft 

6 

8 

10 

13 

% 

5 

7 

9 

12 

& 

4% 

6% 

8% 

11 

% 

4 

6 

8 

10 

over  % 

3% 

5 

6V2 

9 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


47 


PLATES   UNDER 


IN.    IN    THICKNESS. 


Thickness    of 
Plate. 
In  Inches. 

Width  of  Plate 

Up  to  50  Inches. 
Per  Cent. 

50   to   70  inches. 
Per  Cent. 

Over  70  inches. 
Per  Cent. 

Vs  up  to  5/32 
5/32  up  to  T3ff 
T3,?  up  to  i/i 

10 

8% 

7 

15 

i2y2 

10 

20 
17 
15 

STRUCTURAL  CAST  IRON. 

Except  when  chilled  iron  is  specified,  all  castings  shall 
be  tough  gray  iron,  free  from  injurious  cold-shuts  or  blow 
holes,  true  to  pattern  and  of  a  workmanlike  finish.  Sample 
pieces,  one  inch  square,  cast  from  the  same  heat  of  metal  in 
sand  moulds,  shall  be  capable  of  sustaining  on  a  clear  span  of 
4  feet  8  inches,  a  central  load  of  500  pounds  when  tested  in 
the  rough  bar. 

Still  another  set  of  specifications  is  here  given.  This  set 
is  more  suitable  for  building  construction  and  represents  the 
main  points  taken  from  several  specifications  used  on  actual 
work  and  forming  part  of  the  iron  man's  contract.  The  ar- 
rangement of  the  various  sections  follows  closely  the  outline 
given  in  the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR   MANUFACTURING,    FABRI- 
CATING, INSPECTION  AND  ERECTION 
OF  STRUCTURAL  STEEL 

for  the  Loft  Building  at  the  S.  W.  Corner  iSth  St.  and  4th 

Ave.,  N.  Y.  City. 

John  Doe,  Owner. 
H.  Smart,  Architect.  V.  R.  Wise,  Engineer. 

GENERAL. 

Site  Examination.  The  iron  contractor  is  to  see  the 
site,  and  to  estimate  for  everything  necessary  to  complete  his 
work  on  the  building,  as  shown  on  plans  as  herein  specified. 

Drawings  and  Specifications.  Any  iron  work  shown  on 
the  plans  and  not  particularly  called  for  in  the  specifications, 
or  any  iron  work  called  for  in  the  specifications,  and  not 
shown  on  the  plans,  must  be  put  in  the  same  as  if  it  were 


48  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

both  shown  and  called  for.  In  fact,  these  specifications  and 
the  accompanying  drawings  are  intended  to  explain  and  com- 
plete each  other  and  include  everything  necessary  and  re- 
quisite for  the  proper  completion  of  the  iron  work  in  this 
building,  notwithstanding  that  every  item  necessarily  in- 
volved in  the  work  is  not  particularly  mentioned. 

Extras  and  Omissions.  No  omissions  and  no  additional 
work  shall  be  undertaken,  except  upon  written  order  signed 
by  the  architect  and  approved  by  the  owner.  The  cost  of 
such  omission  or  additional  work  must  be  agreed  upon  before 
commencing  same. 

Work  Contrary  to  Plans  and  Specifications.  Any  work 
not  in  accord  with  these  specifications  and  the  accompanying 
plans  must  be  taken  out  and  replaced  at  the  contractor's  ex- 
pense by  work  complying  in  all  details  with  these  plans  and 
specifications. 

Shop  Drawings.  The  contractor  shall  submit  to  the 
architect  or  engineer  for  approval,  all  shop  drawings  and  de- 
tails. The  approval  of  these,  however,  is  only  as  to  strength 
and  does  not  relieve  the  contractor  from  responsibility  for 
his  dimensions. 

DIMENSIONS.  The  contractor  must  verify  all  figures 
on  drawings  before  laying  out  the  work ;  figured  dimensions 
are  to  be  used  in  preference  to  scale  measurements ;  scale 
drawings  and  details  in  preference  to  small  scale  plans.  The 
contractor  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  correctness  of  all 
dimensions  at  the  building. 

Errors.  Any  error  or  omission  and  any  discrepancy  of 
any  kind  should  be  referred  to  the  architect  for  correction  as 
soon  as  discovered. 

Sizes.  The  work  covered  by  the  contract  is  completely 
shown  on  the  accompanying  plans  and  these  specifications ;  all 
sizes  and  weights  of  beams  girders  and  columns  are  marked 
on  the  plans  and  the  column  schedule. 

Changes.  The  contractor  may,  if  he  so  desires,  simplify 
the  sizes  of  column  sections  by  increasing  their  weight.  He 
may  replace  standard  beams  by  special  beams  of  greater 
strength  and  weight  when  this  will  save  time  in  delivery.  He 
may  also  change  splicing  points  indicated  on  the  column 
schedule.  Any  of  these  changes,  however,  must  not  be  made 
without  the  written  approval  of  the  engineer. 

Official  Requirements.  The  contractor  shall  comply  with 
all  State  and  Municipal  Laws  and  Ordinances  relating  to 
building  construction.  The  contractor  must  conform  to  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  49 

Building  Code  whether  each   item  is   specifically  mentioned 
and  shown  or  not. 

Damages.  The  contractor  shall  be  responsible  for  all 
damages  and  injuries  that  may  occur  to  persons,  animals,  ve- 
hicles or  adjoining  property,  from  whatever  cause,  during  the 
progress  and  in  connection  with  his  work. 

Personal  Attention.  The  contractor  is  to  give  his  per- 
sonal attention  to  the  work  and  shall  have  a  competent  fore- 
man on  the  job  at  all  times. 

Tackle.  The  contractor  shall  furnish  all  planks,  ladders, 
scaffolding  materials  and  appliances  necessary  to  complete 
his  work  to  the  true  intent  and  meaning  of  the  plans  and 

specifications. 

Bond.  The  contractor  will  be  required  to  furnish  a  bond 
through  a  recognized  Surety  Co.,  or  two  approved  bondsmen, 
for  the  amount  of  fifty  (50%)  per  cent,  of  this  contract,  to 
guarantee  the  faithful  performance  of  this  agreement. 

Deliveries.  Shall  be  made  in  the  order  required  for  erec- 
tion, and  at  the  time  specified  in  the  contract.  If  deliveries 
are  not  made  at  the  time  agreed  upon,  the  architect  may  pur- 
chase materials  in  the  open  mraket  at  such  terms  and  for  such 
deliveries  as  in  his  opinion  shall  meet  the  requirements  of 
construction.  The  cost  of  such  material  so  purchased  and  of 
its  delivery  to  the  job  shall  be  deducted  from  the  amount  due 
under  the  contract. 

QUALITY  OF  MATERIAL. 

General.  All  cast  iron  and  structural  steel  should  be  the 
best  of  its  kind,  both  as  regards  quality  of  material  and  pro- 
cess of  manufacture. 

Finish.  All  finished  material  shall  be  straight,  of  correct 
section,  and  shall  have  smooth,  clean,  surfaces,  free  from 
cracks,  seems,  buckles  or  other  defects. 

Weight.  A  variation  of  three  (3%)  per  cent,  for  cast  iron 
and  two  and  one  a  half  (2T/2%)  per  cent,  for  steel  from  the 
estimated  weights  will  be  allowed  in  the  finished  material. 
Additional  weight  in  excess  of  these  allowances  will  not  be 
paid  for.  Any  single  member  or  piece  of  material  which 
weighs  less  than  the  estimated  weight  by  more  than  the  above 
allowance,  may  be  condemned  at  the  discretion  of  the  archi- 
tect. 

MANUFACTURE. 

Castings.  All  castings  shall  be  of  good  foundry  mixture. 
Only  such  scrap  iron  as  may  be  approved  by  the  architect  or 


50  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

his  inspector  shall  be  mixed  with  the  metal  used  for  castings. 
All  castings  shall  be  clean,  tough  gray  iron,  free  from  blow- 
holes, honeycombs,  cold-shuts,  cinders,  sand,  shrinking- 
cracks  or  other  defects,  correct  as  to  pattern,  neat  as  to  finish 
and  not  warped.  All  castings  shall  be  allowed  to  cool  slowly 
in  the  sand  to  avoid  shrinkage  strains.  Castings  of  incorrect 
dimensions  and  warped  castings  may  be  rejected  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  architect. 

Steel.  All  steel  shall  be  manufactured  by  the  Open- 
hearth  process,  and  shall  be  uniform  in  quality.  Chemical  an- 
alyses for  each  furnace  heat  must  be  made  by  the  rolling 
mills  and  checked  by  the  inspector.  No  steel  shall  contain 
more  than  .08  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  nor  over  .06  of  sulphur. 

Rivet 'Steel  shall  be  "soft"  steel.  All  other  steel  shall  be 
of  "medium"  grade  complying  with  tests  below  specified. 

Tests.  Cast  Iron.  Two  specimens,  each  i  in.  sq.  shall 
be  cast  in  sand  molds  for  each  furnace  heat.  One  of  these 
specimens  shall  be  turned  to  a  diameter  of  «)4  in.  for  about 
five  inches.  It  shall  then  be  broken  under  tension  and  it  shall 
develop  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  at  least  18,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  The  other  specimen  shall  be  supported  hori- 
zontally on  two  knife  edges  12  inches  apart.  In  this  position 
the  specimen  shall  be  capable  of  sustaining  a  central  concen- 
tration of  2,500  pounds,  with  a  deflection  of  not  less  than 
3/16  of  an  inch. 

Castings  shall  not  break  when  struck  with  a  sledge  ham- 
mer. A  blow  from  a  hammer  upon  the  edge  of  any  casting 
shall  show  an  indentation  without  crushing  or  chipping  off  the 
metal. 

Steel.  Two  specimens  cut  from  finished  materials  of  each 
furnace  heat  must  be  furnished  by  the  rolling  mill.  Such 
specimens  and  all  material  rolled  from  the  same  melt  shall  be 
marked  for  indentification  with  the  number  of  the  original 
furnace  melt.  Each  specimen  shall  be  I  in.  wide,  18  in.  long 
and  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  rolled  material.  One  speci- 
men s.hall  be  broken  in  tension  in  a  testing  machine  and  shall 
show  an  ultimate  strength  of  54,000  to  64,000  tbs.  per  sq.  in. 
for  "medium"  steel  and  50,000  to  58,000  ibs.  per  sq.  in.  for 
"soft"  steel.  Its  elastic  limit  shall  not  be  less  than  32,000 
pounds  per  sq.  inch  and  a  minimum  elongation  of  not  less  than 
25%  in  eight  inches.  If  the  first  specimen  fails  to  develop  the 
required  strength  and  elongation,  three  other  specimens  may 
be  tested  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  and  if  two  of  these 
specimens  do  not  fulfill  the  above  requirements,  all  material 
rolled  from  the  corresponding  furnace  melt  shall  be  con- 
demned. The  second  specimen  shall  have  one  end  heated  to  a 


IRON   AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  51 

cherry  red,  quenched  in  water  and  bent ;  the  other  eiul  bent 
cold.  Both  bends  shall  be  180°  flat  and  shall  not  develop  any 
flaws. 

SHOPWORK. 

General.  All  workmanship  shall  be  first  class  in  all  re- 
spects and  in  accordance  with  the  best  shop  practice. 

Shop  Drawings.  All  working  shop  drawings  shall  agree 
with  the  plans  furnished  by  the  architect  and  must  be  signed 
by  the  architect  before  work  commences.  The  shop,  however, 
must  make  good,  without  charge,  any  errors  resulting  from 
not  following  the  architect's  plans  and  errors  of  clearance  or 
connections.  The  architect  shall  be  furnished  with  not  less 
than  two  sets  of  working  plans  and  two  sets  of  order  lists  of 
materials. 

Dimensions.  All  members  must  be  of  correct  length,  in 
accordance  with  plans  approved  by  the  architect. 

Punching.  All  rivet  holes  shall  be  laid  out  by  means  of  a 
template,  accurately  spaced  and  in  a  true  line.  The  diameter 
of  the  die  should  not  exceed  the  diameter  of  the  punch  by  more 
than  1/16  inch  for  material  j/2  inch  thick  or  less,  nor  3/32  inch 
for  thicker  material.  All  rivet  holes  shall  be  clean  cut  and 
free  from  cracks  and  burrs.  Burrs  shall  be  removed  by  ream- 
ing. The  diameter  of  the  finished  hole  shall  not  exceed  the 
diameter  of  the  rivet  by  more  than  1/16  inch. 

Straightening.  All  material  must  be  straightened  before 
and  after  punching. 

Assembling.  Before  riveting,  built  members  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  a  sufficient  number  of  bolts  to  prevent  bending  or 
warping  during  riveting. 

Drifting.  No  drifting  of  holes  will  be  allowed  under  any 
conditions.  Holes  that  do  not  match  shall  be  corrected  by 
reaming  or  by  newr  material,  or  by  both,  at  the  discretion  of 
the  architect. 

Reaming.  Shall  be  used  to  make  holes  match.  Built-up 
girders  shall  have  rivet  holes  punched  */6  inch  smaller,  and  then 
the  holes  shall  be  reamed  to  full  size  with  the  parts  held  in 
position. 

Riveting.  Rivets  shall  be  of  soft  steel  and  driven  by  ma- 
chine whenever  practicable.  Rivets  shall  be  used  for  all 
column  splices-  and  for  all  connections  within  three  feet  from 
each  column;  other  work  may  be  bolted  or  riveted,  at  the 
contractor's  pleasure.  All  rivets  and  bolts  must  be  ->4  inch 
diameter  throughout  the  building,  except  in  special  cases 


52  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

where  it  is  necessary  to  use  other  sizes.  The  pitch  of  rivets 
shall  never  be  less  than  iJ/£  inches  nor  more  than  6  inches, 
while  the  minimum  distance  from  the  center  of  any  rivet 
to  the'edge  of  the  shape  shall  be  1^4  inches.  Rivets  should 
not  be  used  in  tension.  An  excess  of  25  per  cent,  in  the  num- 
ber of  rivets  shall  be  allowed  in  all  connections  to  be  riveted 
in  the  field. 

The  rivets  shall  completely  fill  the  holes,  with  full  heads 
concentric  with  the  holes  and  in  full  contact  with  the  sur- 
faces of  the  metal.  All  rivet  heads  shall  be  neat,  cup-shaped, 
free  from  cracks  on  edges,  and  shall  not  be  burned.  All 
burned,  loose  or  otherwise  defective  rivets  will  be  condemned 
and  will  have  to  be  removed  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

Any  injury  caused  to  the  material  in  removing  defective 
rivets  may  serve  to  condemn  the  injured  parts. 

Painting.  Before  any  painting  is  done  in  the  shop  all 
scale,  dust,  dirt  and  foreign  matter  of  any  kind  must  be  re- 
moved from  the  structural  steel.  Cast  iron  work  shall  not  be 
painted  until  delivered  on  the  job,  reinspected,  and  approved. 
All  covered  surfaces,  surfaces  in  contact  and  surfaces  enclosed 
on  all  sides  by  riveted  members  must  receive  one  good  coat 
of  paint  after  the  pieces  are  punched  and  before  they  are 
assembled.  All  steel  work  must  receive  one  complete  coat  of 
paint  before  it  can  be  taken  from  the  shops  or  exposed  to  the 
weather.  All  faced  ends  of  columns  and  other  planed  surfaces 
must  be  coated  with  white  lead  and  tallow  before,  leaving  the 
shop.  After  erection,  all  surfaces,  including  cast  iron,  shall 
be  painted  one  thorough  field  coat.  All  painting  shall  be  done 
on  dry  surfaces,  and  no  painting  shall  be  done  in  wret  or  freez- 
ing weather.  The  field  coat  of  paint  must  be  of  a  different 
color  than  the  shop  coat.  The  paint  used  must  be  one  of 
the  following : 

Red  lead  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  mixed  in  proportion  of 
23  pounds  of  lead  to  I  gallon  of  oil. 

Graphite  paint  No.  26,  manufactured  by  Chicago  Graphite 
Co.,  or  any  other  paint  approved  by  the  architect. 

Bases.  Cast  iron  bases  must  be  provided  for  all  columns 
where  shown  on  plans,  and  must  conform  with  approved  de- 
tail drawings.  All  bases  must  be  planed  smooth  on  top  and 
must  be  of  the  required  height.  The  ribs  must  be  arranged 
in  each  case  so  that  'the  entire  cross-section  of  the  column 
shall  be  directly  supported  from  the  bottom  of  the  base.  The 
holes  for  the  bolts  connecting  the  columns  to  the  bases  must 
be  drilled  to  a  template  and  in  exact  position.  Other  holes 
and  grouting  holes  may  be  cored. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  53 

Cast  Iron  Columns.  All  cast  iron  columns  shall  be  of 
exact  height,  with  bearing  surfaces  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  column.  The  ends  shall  be  planed  accurately  and 
smooth.  Connection-holes  shall  be  exactly  spaced  and  drilled 
to  a  template.  The  top  and  bottom  flanges  shall  be  reinforced 
by  ample  fillets-and  shall  be  not  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness 
when  finished. 

Steel  columns  shall  be  made  in  double  story  lengths  ex- 
cept where  otherwise  indicated  on  the  column  schedule.  Col- 
umns built  of  several  sections  shall  be  riveted  together  with 
^4  inch  diameter  rivets  spaced  not  more  than  6  inches  on 
centres  nor  more  than  16  times  the  thickness  of  the  thinnest 
plate.  At  splices  and  in  the  vicinity  of  beams  and  girder  con- 
nections the  rivets  shall  be  spaced  3  inches  for  the  full  depth 
of  connections.  In  riveting  up  built  columns  due  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  them  straight  and  free  from  twists.  All 
columns  shall  be  milled  at  each  end  to  a  smooth  bearing- 
surface  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  column. 

Column  Splices.  Unless  otherwise  specified  by  the  archi- 
tect, all  column  splices  shall  be  made  by  riveting  splice-plates 
on  the  sides  of  each  column  with  not  less  than  twelve  rivets 
in  each  column.  All  splice-plates  shall  be  y*  inch  thick,  except 
where  the  metal  of  the  columns  connected  is  less  than  %  inch 
thick,  when  the  splice-plates  may  be  %  inch  thick.  Where 
the  outside  depth  of  one  column  is  less  than  the  other  by 
more  than  1/16  inch  on  each  side,  the  clearance  must  be  taken 
up  with  fillers  of  the  same  width  and  punched  the  same  as 
the  splice-plates.  Rivet  holes  in  columns  and  corresponding 
holes  in  splice-plates  must  match  accurately.  All  columns  will 
have  3/4  inch  cap  plates.  The  point  at  which  the  change  in. 
section  is  made  shall  generally  be  two  feet  above  the  finished 
floors. 

Beams.  Any  beam  that  is  longer  than  required  for  its 
special  place  shall  be  rejected.  Where  beams  connect  to 
beams  a  clearance  not  exceeding  l/%  inch  at  each  end  will  be 
allowed.  Where  beams  connect  to  columns  the  clearance 
shall  not  exceed  l/±  inch  at  each  end.  All  beam  connections, 
whenever  possible,  shall  be  made  by  means  of  standard  con- 
nections, as  shown  in  the  Carnegie  Handbook,  and  with  the 
same  number  of  rivets.  Any  other  standard  approved  by  the 
architect  may  be  used.  Wherever  the  details  of  the  columns 
will  permit,  beams  and  girders  connecting  to  columns  shall 
have  not  less  than  eight  rivets  at  each  end,  four  in  the  top 
flange  and  four  in  the  bottom  flange.  Unless  otherwise  noted, 
all  beams  and  lintels  are  indicated  to  their  approximate  lengths 
and  positions  by  single  lines  on  the  floor  plans. 


54  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Beam  Connections.  All  beams  resting  on  walls  must  be 
securely  anchored  by  means  of  approved  anchors  built  into 
the  wall.  Under  ends  of  all  wall  bearing  beams  steel  tem- 
plates shall  be  provided  to  distribute  the  load  on  the  wall. 

Separators.  Separators  must  be  provided  for  all  double 
beams.  Where  double  beams  of  the  same  size  take  unequal 
loads,  milled  cast  iron  separators  fitting  tight  against  the 
flanges  of  beams  shall  be  provided.  Other  separators  may 
be  of  heavy  gas  pipe  with  %  inch  bolts  made  tight.  All 
separators  are  shown  in  detail  on  plans. 

Tie-rods.  Tie-rods  ^4  inch  in  diameter  must  be  provided 
on  all  floors,  and  ^  inch  in  diameter  in  roof,  as  shown  on 
plans.  Each  tie-rod  must  be  made  with  two  nuts,  one  on 
each  end.  Bent  tie-rods  must  be  rejected. 

General.  The  purpose  and  intention  of  these  specifica- 
tions is  to  provide  for  complete  work,  including  all  necessary 
details  and  connections  requisite  for  erection  and  safety,  and 
for  the  development  of  the  full  strength  of  the  structure 
Such  details  are  to  be  considered  as  specified,  and  are  to  be 
provided  by  the  iron  contractor  without  extra  charge. 

ERECTION. 

Safety.  All  erection  work  shall  be  done  in  a  safe  and 
careful  manner,  and  all  the  provisions  of  the  State  Labor  Laws 
and  City  Ordinances  relating  to  safety  and  erection  of  build- 
ings shall  be  complied  with. 

Accidents.  The  contractor  is  to  take  upon  himself  all 
accident  liabilities  resulting  from  the  erection  of  the  iron  work. 

Bracing.  Whenever  the  masonry  is  more  than  three  tiers 
behind  the  steel  work  the  contractor  must  put  in  temporary 
timber  braces  or  steel  cables  or  guys  to  keep  all  the  iron  work 
plumb  until  the  walls  are  in  place.  This  must  be  done  to  the 
entire  satisfaction  of  the  architect. 

Setting  Iron.  In  handling  and  setting  iron  pieces  due 
care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  beams  and  columns  from 
falling,  in  order  to  avoid  bending  and  heavy  shocks.  In 
driving  and  bending  iron,  wooden  mauls  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  iron  hammers  whenever  possible. 

Bases.  All  bases  for  columns  must  be  set  to  exact  centre 
and  to  exact  height,  and  no  variation  greater  than  1/16  inch 
from  the  correct  position  will  be  allowed.  The  masonry  con- 
tractor will  bed  all  bases  in  position. 

Columns.  All  columns  must  be  set  plumb  and  in  proper 
line,  and  not  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  all  holes  in  column 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  55 

splices  must  be  filled  in  with  3/±  mcn  temporary  bolts  as  soon 
as  each  column  is  in  place. 

Beams.  All  beams  must  be  set  level  unless  otherwise 
indicated  on  plans.  The  elevation  of  wall  beams  and  lintels 
is  indicated  on  plans. 

Derrick.  The  mast  of  the  derrick  must  at  all  times  be 
securely  tied  with  steel  guy  ropes  properly  anchored.  All 
beam  and  column  connections  immediately  under  the  derrick 
shall  be  fully  bolted  before  any  iron  is  hoisted.  The  block 
under  the  mast  shall  be  kept  in  place  by  solid  timber  braces 
and  steel  ropes.  All  iron  work  must  be  hoisted  in  a  safe  man- 
ner to  avoid  accidents. 

Overloading.  All  possible  cases  of  overloading  must  be 
avoided,  and  loads  stressing  any  piece  beyond  the  allowable 
working  stresses  will  not  be  allowed.  Beams  supporting  the 
derrick  shall  be  shored  at  the  mid-length  with  solid  timber 
posts  supported  by  beams  on  the  tier  below  the  derrick,  in 
order  to  avoid  overloading. 

INSPECTION. 

General.  Before  the  commencement  of  casting  or  roll- 
ing the  manufacturer  must  give  the  inspector  due  notice  to 
that  effect.  All  facilities  should  be  given  throughout  the 
manufacturing  processes  for  an  adequate  inspection.  All  pieces 
must  be  inspected  by  daylight,  and  all  material  shall  be  turned 
over  for  inspection  on  all  sides  at  the  request  of  the  inspector. 

Identification.  All  pieces  must  be  marked  for  identifica- 
tion with  the  number  of  the  original  furnace  heat,  except  that 
for  pieces  used  to  carry  small  loads  the  inspector  may  waive 
this  requirement.  All  rejected  material  shall  also  be  identified 
by  permanent  marks. 

Stock.  No  stock  material  will  be  allowed  as  a  substitute 
for  new  rolled  material  except  in  case  of  pieces  used  to  carry 
small  loads  or  when  the  material  was  tested  and  identified 
as  above,  and  the  inspector  can  judge  as  to  its  quality  from 
undoubted  records. 

Records.  Manufacturers  shall  keep  open  for  the  in- 
spector all  books  or  records  giving  information  as  to  the 
quality  of  materials,  and  shall  furnish  the  inspector  with 
records  of  chemical  analyses  and  copies  of  shipping  invoices. 

Manufacturers  will  give  at  least  two  days'  notice  before 
each  shipment  to  the  architect  or  his  inspector.  Manufac- 
turers will  also  provide  all  reasonable  facilities  for  a  proper 
inspection. 


56  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Costs.  Manufacturers  shall  furnish  the  inspector  all  test 
specimens,  the  use  of  testing  machines,  and  all  labor  neces- 
sary to  handle  the  material  for  inspection.  Where  shipments 
are  made  without  inspection,  or  when  due  notice  or  proper 
inspection  facilities  have  not  been  furnished,  the  additional 
cost  of  subsequent  inspection  will  be  borne  by  the  manu- 
facturer. 

General  Responsibility.  Manufacturers,  mills,  foundries 
and  shops  are  required  to  furnish  satisfactory  materials 
strictly  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  specifications,  regard- 
less of  inspection,  acceptance,  or  failure  to  inspect  certain 
pieces  of  material. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Field  Inspection  of  Minor  Iron  and    Steel 
Structures. 

In  approaching  the  subject  of  field  inspection  of  iron  and 
steel  it  was  found  advisable  to  state  in  a  few  words  the  kind  of 
work  expected  from  an  iron  inspector  in  the  field.  The  inspec- 
tion of  minor  structures  like  small  alterations  has  next  been 
described,  starting  with  simple  store  front  alterations  with 
and  without  column  supports. 

The  more  complex  work,  that  of  inspecting  tall  structures, 
will  be  taken  up  for  convenience  under  several  separate  head- 
ings in  the  chapters  following. 

The  work  of  an  Iron  Inspector  in  the  field  depends 
largely  upon  the  stage  the  structure  has  reached  at  the  time 
of  the  inspection.  The  following  classification  indicates  in 
a  general  way  the  kind  of  work  to  be  performed  by  the 
inspector : 

1.  To  examine  materials  as  to  their  sizes,  shapes,  work- 
manship and  other  qualities. 

2.  To  see  that  all  the  materials  agree  with  the  approved 
plans  and  with  the  building  laws. 

3.  To  mark  rejected  materials  for  identification  and  to 
see  that  no  rejected  material  is  used  in  the  structure. 

4.  To    inspect   the    workmanship    of   the    iron    framing 
and  to  condemn  bad  work,  thus  promoting  good  workman- 
ship. 

5.  To   see   that   the   erection   is   carried    on    safely   and 
without  danger  to  life  and  limb,  and  that  the  State  Labor 
Laws  or  any  similar  laws  or  ordinances  for  protection  of  life 
and   limb  are  not  violated   during  any  time  while  the  con- 
struction work  is  in  progress. 

6.  To  inspect  the  derricks,  guys  and,  in  general,  all  the 
rigging  in  order  to  avoid  accidents. 

7.  To  see  that  no  part  of  the  structure  is  overloaded. 

8.  To   see   that   the    structure    is    properly   braced    and 
guyed  during  erection. 

INSPECTION  OF  STORE  FRONT  ALTERATIONS. 

Examining  Materials  Before  Setting.  Many  errors  can 
1>e  conveniently  avoided  by  examining  the  iron  and  steel 


58  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

upon  delivery  and  before  the  same  is  set  in  place.  While 
such  an  examination  is  desirable  in  all  cases,  it  can  usually 
be  performed  by  the  architect's  or  the  owner's  inspector, 
who  is  at  the  job  all  the  time  and  who  can  therefore  check 
up  and  inspect  the  materials  as  they  are  delivered.  This 
inspection  is  especially  important  in  store  front  alterations. 

Store  Front  Alterations.  This  group  of  alterations  in- 
cludes the  partial  transformation  of  dwellings  or  similar 
houses  into  commercial  buildings  by  removing  part  of  the 
front  brick  work  to  provide  large  show  windows, -and  by 
supporting  the  masonry  above  these  windows  by  means  of 
iron  or  steel  girders  or  beams ;  it  also  comprises  the  removal 
of  piers  of  masonry  in  actual  stores  to  allow  room  for  larger 
show  windows. 

In  both  these  cases  the  brick  walls  are  usually  shored 
up,  the  iron  beams  placed  in  their  proper  place,  and  the 
shoring  removed  as  quickly  as  possible  to  avoid  business 
losses. 

The  iron  beams  should  be  examined  while  in  the  street 
and  before  setting,  because  after  erection  the  beams  may 
not  be  easily  accessible.  Also,  the  beams  may  be  covered 
up  quickly,  before  being  inspected,  and  if  the  beams  are 
condemned  it  is  very  hard  to  replace  them  after  the  shoring 
has  been  removed. 

Following   points   should   receive   careful   consideration : 

1.  Wrought  iron  beams  are  substituted  for  steel  beams 
of   equal    depth.      The    wrought    iron    beams    can    easily    be 
identified   by   the   fibrous   appearance   of   the   metal   and   by 
their  heavy  web  and   clumsy  cross-section,  which   contrasts 
easily  with  the  slender  cross-section  of  standard  steel  beams. 
There   are   few  wrought   iron   beams   rolled   to-day,   as   steel 
beams  have  greater  stiffness  and  therefore  greater  load  carry- 
ing capacity  than  wrought  iron  beams  of  equal  weight.    The 
only   serious   objections   against    wrought    iron    beams    are 
their   lower   strength    and   their   greater    deflection    as    com- 
pared to  steel  beams.     For  small  spans  and  dead  loads  the 
deflection  may  not  be  an  important  factor;  as  for  strength 
the  wrought  iron  beams  are  generally  20  per  cent,  weaker 
than  steel  beams  of  equal  weight,  and  a  careful  refiguring 
by   the   architect   or  by   the   plan   examiner   of  the   loads   to 
be  carried  by  the  wrought  iron  beams  may  bring  the  beams 
in  question  within  the  requirements  of  the  law. 

2.  Second-hand  Material.     Nothing  in  the  law  prevents 
the  use  of  second-hand  material  provided   same  is  in  good 
condition.     Second-hand  box  girders  and  thin  webbed  beams 
heavily   painted   may   have   their   webs   badly   corroded   and 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


59 


full  of  holes.  Such  iron  should  be  struck  with  a  heavy  ham- 
mer or  a  crowbar  enough  strong  blows  to  establish  beyond 
question  the  condition  of  the  thinner  metal  under  the  coat 
of  paint.  Examine  the  web  also  for  holes  filled  in  with 
paint ;  if  there  are  enough  of  these  holes  to  materially  reduce 
the  cross-section  and  weaken  the  girder  the  same  should  be 
rejected. 

3.  Separators.  Double  wall  beams  should  be  provided 
with  separators  not  further  apart  than  five  feet.  (Section 
117,  Building  Code.)  Beams  12  inches  and  over  must  have 
two  bolts  in  each  separator.  This  may  be  taken  to  mean 
that  cast  iron  or  steel  plate  separators  must  be  used  for 
beams  12  inches  and  over,  or  else  two  bolts  could  not  be 
provided  in  each  separator.  Separators  are  used  either  for 
keeping  the  beams  in  proper  positions  at  definite  distances 
apart,  or  for  the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  loads  carried 
by  each  beam  when  the  load  is  applied  eccentrically.  Sep- 
arators also  increase  the  stability  of  each  beam,  lessening 
the  tendency  to  overturning;  they  also  stiffen  the  webs  and 
prevent  crippling  in  the  web. 


Tig.    12— Grillage. 


Fig.  12  shows  a  column  footing  with  standard  one-inch 
gas  pipe  separators  in  the  two  lower  sets  of  beams.  The 
12-inch  beams  have  two  pipe  separators,  one  over  the  other, 
as  required.  All  these  pipe  separators  keep  the  grillage 


6o 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


beams   in   the   proper   relative  position   until   the   grillage   is 
filled  in  and  covered  up  with  concrete. 

The  most  reliable  kind  of  separator  is  the  one  built 
of  steel  plate  and  knee  angles,  as  shown  under  the  column. 
The  angles  are  riveted  in  the  shop  to  the  steel  plate,  then 
the  other  leg  of  each  angle  is  riveted  to  one  beam  when  the 
beams  are  not  too  heavy  to  handle  together,  otherwise  the 
separator  is  shipped  loose  and  bolted  in  the  field. 


Tig.  13 — Gas  Pipe  and  Cast  Iron  Separators. 

Fig.  13  shows  the  common  gas  pipe  separator  used  in 
double  wall  beams  to  increase  the  stability  of  the  iron  beams 
and  to  prevent  them  from  spreading  apart. 

Fig.  13  also  shows  the  common  or  standard  type  of  cast 
iron  separator.  Either  this  separator  or  a  plate  and  angles 
separator  should  be  used  when  the  load  is  applied  eccen- 
trically, as  in  the  diagram.  The  outside  beam  carries  part 
of  the  wall  load  only,  while  the  inside  beam  carries  both 
wall  and  floor  load.  The  two  wall  beams  will  not  act  together 
like  one  girder  unless  proper  separators  are  used  to  tie  the 
beams  to  one  another.  Pipe  separators  should  not  be  used 
in  such  cases.  The  standard  cast  iron  separator  must  be 
milled  around  the  edges  to  fill  in  closely  against  the  webs 
and  flanges  of  the  beams. 

Fig.  I4a  shows  a  separator  made  of  ^-inch  plate  and  a 
steel  flat  bent  to  suit  and  properly  bolted. 

Fig.  I4b  shows  channel  separators. 

Fig.  I4c  shows  separators  made  of  24-inch  rods  with 
double  nuts  at  each  end. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


61 


4.     Common  Defects  in  Separators : 

Separators  not  provided  within  5'  o"  center  to  center 
distance. 

Using  only  one  bolt  in  a  1 2-inch  beam  separator,  instead 
of  two,  as  required. 

Omitting  separators. 

Using  ^4-inch  bolts  without  pipes. 

Using  pipes  that  are  too  short  in  length. 


Figr.    14 — Good    and    Defective    Separators. 

Using  pipes  with  rough  edges  instead  of  sawing  same 
off  to  a  smooth  edge. 

Using  deceitful  short  bolts  instead  of  through  bolts. 
Fig.  I4d. 

Using  bolts  too  short  or  too  long.     Fig.  146. 

Using  bolts  less  than  ^4-inch  diameter  in  i3/i6-inch 
holes. 

Using  hook  bolts  instead  of  standard  head  bolts.   Fig.  I4f. 

5.     Results  of  Defective  Separators: 

In  one  instance  separators  have  been  omitted  in  1 2-inch 
front  wall  channels.  The  channels  were  about  30  feet  long 
and  had  shop  punched  holes  for  separators.  Fig.  I4g.  Brick 
work  and  terra  cotta  were  set  for  a  height  of  two  stories 
before  providing  separators.  The  channels  began  to  spread, 
as  shown  dotted.  Attempts  were  made  to  drive  a  ^-inch 
hook  bolt  in  the  inside  and  to  catch  the  outside  channel 
through  a  i3/i6-inch  separator  bolt.  Two  stories  of  brick 
work  had  to  be  removed,  also  the  terra  cotta,  and  straight 
separators  with  sawed  off  pipes  had  to  be  provided.  Hook 
bolts  cannot  be  made  sufficiently  tight,  and  they  should  never 
be  used. 

Short  bolts  may  cause  leaving  out  the  nut  in  the  threaded 
ends.  Long  bolts  may  not  be  made  tight,  due  to  lack  of 


62 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


thread  length.  Iron  washers  may  be  used  with  the  long 
bolts,  but  short  bolts  should  not  be  allowed.  In  one  case 
the  excess  length  of  some  long  bolts  has  been  packed  up 
with  wooden  washers.  This  is  bad  construction,  as  the 
wood  may  rot,  thus  leaving  the  double  beams  with  loose 
separators. 

6.  Strapping  of  Iron  Work.  The  steel  beams  support- 
ing the  walls  of  a  building  should  be  strapped  or  tied  to  the 
inner  parts  of  the  building  so  as  to  secure  absolute  stability. 
This  is  usually  done  by  providing  steel  straps  as  shown  in 
Fig.  15,  under  each  brick  pier  between  windows,  and  in  all 
cases  not  less  than  three  straps  for  a  front  of  about  25  to  30 
feet.  Each  strap  is  made  of  a  steel  flat  i^/ox^  inches  and 
long  enough  to  catch  over  four  joists  and  to  be  bent  up 
will  be  necessary  at  the  anchored  end. 


Fig:.    15 — Wall    Beams    and    Ties. 

Each  strap  is  nailed  to  each  joist  at  crossing  points  to 
prevent  the  strap  from  falling  down,  holes  having  been 
provided  in  the  straps  for  this  purpose.  Packing  should 
be  provided  at  P,  if  necessary,  to  fill  in  the  space  between 
the  strap  and  the  last  joist.  The  strap  may  be  made  to 
catch  the  outside  beam  or  it  may  be  passed  in  between  the 
beams  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  last  method  avoids 
disturbances  in  the  arrangement  of  the  face  brick.  When 
the  beams  are  too  close  together  a  notch  may  be  made  in 
the  flange  of  one  of  the  beams  to  make  room^for  the  strap. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  63 

W^hen  the  top  of  the  wooden  beams  is  lower  than  the 
bottom  of  the  steel  beams,  the  straps  may  be  placed  under 
the  steel  beams  and  over  the  wooden  beams  writh  equally 
good  results.  Whenever  possible  the  straps  should  be 
placed  so  as  to  avoid  breaking  through  plastered  ceilings 
which  would  have  been  left  undisturbed  otherwise. 

The  front  beams  may  also  be  tied  in  by  means  of  an 
angle  or  channel  bolted  to  such  front  beams  (Fig.  I5b)  and 
made  to  run  alongside  the  floor  construction  to  some  interior 
wall  or  pier  and  anchored  into  same.  This  arrangement  is 
conveniently  used  when  the  wooden  floor  joists  run  fore 
and  aft  or  at  right  angles  to  the  steel  beams  supporting 
the  wall. 

If  the  tie  beam  does  not  carry  any  load  no  template 
will  be  necessary  at  "the  anchored  end. 


Fig:.   16— Box-Girder  tied  to  Wooden  Beam. 

a,  8    in.    x    10    in.    main    wooden   beam   on    a 
long   span. 

b,  6x3  %x%    angles   with    %    in.    bolts, 
e,   separators. 

Another  arrangement  is  given  in  Fig.  16.  It  shows 
through  bolt  strapping  of  a  double-beam  steel  box  girder  to 
8xio  inch  wood  beams  running  fore  and  aft.  There  are  two 
strap  angles,  each  with  two  bolts  through  the  timber  and 
one  through  the  girder. 

7.     Usual  Defects  in  Strapping: 

Omitting  straps. 

Using  straps  less  than  i^x^  inch  cross-section. 

Using  short  straps  which  do  not  catch  on  four  beams. 

The  inner  end  of  each  strap  is  not  bent  vertically  beyond 
the  fourth  beam. 

Straps  are  loose  and  do  not  fit,  no  packing  being  pro- 
vided. In  this  case  either  pack  the  inner  end  of  the  strap 
with  wooden  pieces  or  pack  the  outer  end  with  iron  wedges, 
or  even  a  piece  of  a  round  iron  bar  or  a  piece  of  an  angle 


64  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

placed  against  the  beam  so  as  to  fill  up  the  space  between  the 
strap  and  the  beam. 

8.  Templates.  Where  iron  wall  girders  rest  on  masonry 
templates  are  provided  under  the  ends  of  such  girders  to 
uniformly  distribute  the  pressure.  The  sizes  of  templates 
required  by  the  Code  are  as  follows : 

For  girders  over  12  ft.  span,  stone  templates  10  inches 
thick. 

For  girders  under  12  ft.  span,  stone  templates  5  inches 
thick. 

For  lintels  over  6  ft.  span,  stone  templates  5  inches  thick. 

For  lintels  under  6  ft.  span  no  template  is  required, 
but  each  end  must  bear  5  inches  on  the  wall. 

Steel  plates  of  equal  strength  may  be  used  instead  of 
stone  templates.  In  addition  all  wall  bearing  beams  must 
have  iron  or  stone  templates  and  wall  anchors,  except  beams 
less  than  6  inches  in  depth  when  spaced  not  over  30  inches 
centre  to  centre. 

Steel  templates  should  be  well  grouted,  so  as  to  bind 
well  to  the  masonry. 

The  sizes  generally  used  are  as  follows : 

For  3,  4,  5  and  6  inch  beams,  6x6x%. 

For  7  and  8  inch  beams,  8x8x^/2. 

For  9,  10  and  12  inch  beams,  TOXIOX^. 

For  15,  18,  20  and  24  inch  beams,  12x12x^4. 

Where  larger  size  templates  are  required,  grillage  beams 
with  separators  may  be  used  instead  of  templates  to  dis- 
tribute the  load  on  the  masonry. 

All  templates  must  be  placed  flush  on  edge  with  the 
inner  face  of  the  wall,  as  in  Fig.  i7a.  Where  the  plate  is 
placed  too  far  in,  the  iron  beam  upon  deflecting  may  crush 
the  wall  at  the  inner  edge.  See  Fig.  I7b. 

When  the  templates  are  rectangular  and  of  sufficient 
thickness,  they  should  be  placed  with  their  longer  edge 
along  the  inner  edge  of  the  wall. 

In  some  cases  box  girders  with  a  wide  bottom  plate 
are  used.  These  plates  can  not  be  considered  as  equivalent 
to  templates,  no  matter  how  much  they  bear  on  the  wall. 
A  template  when  well  set  forms  part  of  the  wall  and  sticks 
to  it,  thus  tending  to  uniformly  distribute  the  load  over 
the  pier  area.  This  template  does  not  deflect  with  the  girder, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  I7c,  which  represents  the  side  elevation 
of  a  box  girder  made  of  two  10  inch  beams  and  two  ^2  inch 
plates.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  template  is  omitted  the 
bottom  plate  of  the  girder  will  deflect  with  the  girder  and 
will  bring  a  concentrated  load  along  the  very  edge  of  the 
wall,  as  in  Fig.  I7b. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  65 

9.     Usual  Defects  in  Templates: 

Omitting  templates. 

Using  stone  templates  of  less  thickness  than  required 
by  the  Code. 

Placing  the  templates  inside  the  wall  and  beyond  the 
inner  edge  of  the  wall. 

Placing  templates  too  low  and  raising  the  end  of  the 
girder  to  the  proper  level  by  means  of  wood  or  slate  wedges. 

Using  small  templates  and  thus  overloading  the  masonry. 

Using  thin  templates,  which  tend  to  bend  under  the 
super-imposed  load. 

Using  cracked  and  otherwise  defective  stone  templates 
or  cast  iron,  plates. 


lid 


Fig.    17 — Templates    and    Wall    Anchors. 

When  the  templates  are  too  low  the  difference  should 
be  made  up  by  using  thin  steel  plates  on  top  of  the  original 
low  plates,  and  of  the  same  length  and  width  as  the  main 
template.  Or  the  template  may  be  raised  to  the  proper 
elevation  by  means  of  small  wooden  wedges  forced  under- 
neath and  the  space  under  the  template  filled  in  with  good 
cement  mortar.  When  this  has  set  sufficiently  the  wedges 
are  pulled  out  and  the  openings  thus  left  are  filled  in  with 
grout.  No  load  should  be  placed  upon  the  steel .  template 
until  the  mortar  underneath  it  has  completely  set. 


66  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

10.  Wall  Anchors.  The  main  purpose  of  wall  anchors 
is  to  secure  greater  stability  for  the  walls.  There  is  a  large 
variety  of  anchors  used  for  the  purpose  and  some  are  shown 
in  Fig.  17. 

A  good  anchor  must  have  a  large  area  in  contact  with 
the  mortar,  hence  the  round  anchor  shown  in  Fig  i/d  is 
commonly  used.  This  anchor  is  made  of  a  24-inch  round  bar 
and  should  be  about  12  inches  long.  It  is  often  specified  in 
government  work  and  is  also  known  as  a  government  anchor. 
The  plain  bolt  anchor,  Fig.  176,  is  easily  obtainable.  The 
bolt  anchor  and  riveted  anchor  have  the  advantage  that,  being 
once  put  in  place,  they  can  not  be  removed  by  other  mechanics 
as  easily  as  the  so-called  government  anchor"  before  the 
masons  brick  these  anchors  in.  Anchors  which  are  not  put 
in  ahead  of  time  by  the  iron  setters  are  liable  to  be  left  out 
by  the  masons. 

Fig.  I7f  shows  a  ^4-inch  round  anchor  sometimes  em- 
ployed in  connection  with  beams  used  in  pairs. 

The  riveted  two-angle  anchor  shown  in  Fig  I7g  is  espe- 
cially good  for  sidewalk  beams;  they  tie  the  street  retaining 
wall  to  the  main  building  and  can  not  be  removed  before 
bricking  in. 

The  common  wall  anchor,  Fig.  17!!,  should  be  used  in 
all  cases  when  the  iron  work  is  about  12  inches  or  more 
from  the  outside  face  of  the  wall.  Not  less  than  4  inches 
should  be  allowed  between  the  anchor  and  the  face  of  the 
wall.  This  is  the  anchor  commonly  used  in  tall  buildings, 
and  is  usually  made  of  a  24~mcn  bolt  with  a  6x6x5/16  plate. 

Fig.  17!  shows  an  excellent  form  of  through  wall  anchor. 
The  24~mcn  bolt  passes  through  the  whole  thickness  of  the 
wall  and  is  provided  on  the  outside  with  either  an  iron  star 
or  a  large  washer. 

In  alteration  work,  whenever  a  wall  is  broken  into  for 
the  purpose  of  resting  an  iron  beam  on  same,  it  is  good 
practice  to  disturb  the  old  work  as  little  as  possible.  Hence 
in  such  cases  the  double-angle  anchor,  either,  riveted  or  bolted, 
is  preferable.  Little  advantage  is  gained,  however,  in  such 
work  with  any  kind  of  an  anchor,  as  upon  patching  up  the 
wall  around  the  beam  in  general  only  the  patchwork  will 
stick  to  the  beam  and  anchor,  while  the  main  wall  will  adhere 
very  little  to  the  new  material  unless  unusual  care  and  good 
workmanship  are  secured.  Under  such  conditions,  if  the 
building  is  only  a  few  stories  in  height,  and  when  the  wall 
is  not  an  xterior  wall,  a  straight  beam  end  without  an 
anchor,  resting  on  the  wall  -and  surrounded  with  good  Port- 
land cement  mortar  and  brickwork,  may  be  found  preferable.. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  67 

STORE   FRONT   ALTERATIONS   INVOLVING 
COLUMNS. 

This  is  a  very  common  form  of  store  front  alteration. 
Instead  of  resting  the  front  wall  girders  on  party  walls  or 
on  brick  piers,  the  two  ends  of  these  girders  rest  on  top  of 
columns  of  iron  or  steel. 

The  columns  must  be  of  the  right  weight  and  size,  must 
be  plumb  and  straight.  They  must  rest  on  base  plates  of 
dimensions  approved  in  the  original  plan.  They  must  be 
bolted  on  top  with  not  less  than  four  ^-inch  bolts  in  each 
column. 

The  beams  must  agree  in  size  and  weight  with  the  ap- 
proved plans;  must  have  separators  not  further  apart  than 
5  feet  centre  to  centre,  and  must  be  well  strapped.  All  iron- 
work must  be  painted  before  and  after  erection. 

The  common  defects  mentioned  in  relation  to  beams  in 
the  previous  chapter  are  often  found,  also,  in  these  alterations. 

In  addition,  we  shall  mention  faults  found  in  columns 
and  their  connections : 

1.  Lightweight  iron. 

Iron  heavier  than  called  for  in  the  approved  plans,  but  the 
shapes  and  materials  are  contrary  to  approved- plans. 

For  instance : 

Using  built-up  columns  instead  of  Bethlehem  columns. 

Using  cast  iron  columns  instead  of  steel  columns. 

Using  standard  beams  for  columns  instead  of  Bethlehem 
columns  of  equal  weight.  This  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
changes  when  made  without  first  figuring  out  the  load  that 
can  be  safely  carried  by  the  new  columns.  To  make  this 
point  clearer  consider  the  following  figures : 

An  8  inch  Bethlehem  column  weighing  32  pounds  per  foot 
is  good  for  55  tons  when  12  feet  long. 

A  6  inch  round  cast  iron  column  ^-inch  metal,  weighing 
39.2  pounds  per  foot,  is  good  for  66.4  tons  when  12  feet  long. 

A  5  inch  round  cast  iron  column  ^-inch  metal,  weighing 
31.7  pounds  per  foot,  is  good  for  52  tons  when  12 -feet  long. 

A  12  inch  standard  I-beam  31.5  pounds  per  foot  is  good 
for  32.1  tons  when  12  feet  long. 

It  is  easily  seen  what  might  happen  when  a  6  inch  cast 
iron  column  is  replaced  by  an  8  inch  Bethlehem  steel  column, 
or  when  a  5  inch  cast  iron  column  is  replaced  by  a  12  inch 
standard  steel  beam. 

2.  Steel  plates  and  stone  blocks  under  the  bottom  of  the 
column  are  defective,  of  smaller  area  and  less  thickness  than 
required  in  the  approved  plans. 


68 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


3.  Omitting  plates  on  top  of  open  back  cast  iron  col- 
umns.   These  plates  make  the  load  more  uniformly  distributed 
and  shall  not  be  omitted.     They  are  required  by  the  Build- 
ing Code. 

4.  Erecting  unpainted   columns   and   placing  brickwork 
around  same  before  painting. 

5.  Using   bolts   less   than    ^4-inch    diameter   in   the   top 
flanges  of  columns  in  connections  of  beams  to  columns.   Using 
less  than  four   ^4-inch  diameter  bolts  in  the  top  flanges  of 
cast  iron  columns,  same  being  contrary  to  the  Code. 

6.  Using  ^-inch  bolts  in  defective  13/16  holes  instead 
of  reaming  out  the  holes  and  using  24-inch  bolts. 

7.  Leaving  out  part  or  all  the  bolts. 


Figr.   18 — Columns   and   Straps. 

a,    8x10x1    in.    cast    iron    column    supporting  two   12 
in.    steel   beams;    b,    10   in.    Bethlehem   column  strap- 
ped with    %    in.    rod   through   wall. 

8.  In  some  cases  second-hand  cast  iron  columns  with- 
out top  flanges  have  been  used.     The  lack  of  flanges  can  be 
remedied  by  an  arrangement   shown   in   Fig.    i8a.     A  steel 
knee  angle  with  one  line  of  through  bolts  and  one  line  of 
tap  bolts  may  be  used.    A  plate  is  put  on  top  and  then  the 
beams  are  drilled  to  fit  and  are  bolted  with   ^-inch  bolts. 
The   diagram   shows   a   column   next   to   an   adjoining   wall. 
Other  columns  may  have  one  steel  knee  angle  on  each  side. 

9.  The  steel  or  iron  columns  may  be  out  of  plumb ;  the 
steel  beams  may  project  beyond  the  party  line.    All  beams 
projecting  beyond  the  party  line  should  be  cut  short  and  all 
columns  shall  be  plumb. 

The  beams  on  top  of  the  iron  columns  are  strapped  to 
the  wood  joists  as  before  stated.     If  the  work  is  done  right 


PLRN 


TC 


Front    Elevation. 
.     19 — Store     Front     Framing:     anchored    through    wall. 


;c  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

this  will  also  help  keeping  the  columns  plumb.  In  case  of 
fire,  however,  the  wood  joists  may  burn  and  the  beam  straps 
may  become  useless.  For  this  reason  in  good  work  ^4  m- 
round  anchors  are  used,  passing  through  each  column  every  4 
feet  or  so  in  height,  and  then  into  the  side  or  party  wall,  as  in 
Fig.  i8b.  All  spaces  around  these  anchors  are  then  filled  in 
with  a  good  cement  mortar. 

One  more  type  of  store  front  construction  will  be  con- 
sidered. Fig.  19  shows  the  side  and  front  elevation  and  the 
top  view  of  a  common  show  window  extending  two  stories 
above  the  ground.  The  steel  frames  for  such  show  windows 
must  be  well  anchored  to  the  main  building.  The  uprights 
are  usually  made  of  steel  angles,  which  are  tied  to  the  main 
structure  by  channels  or  angles.  Whenever  possible  such 
ties  should  be  bolted  to  the  ironwork  of  the  main  building. 
In  the  figure,  however,  is  shown  a  case  where  no  iron  work 
was  within  reach,  and  the  whole  window  frame  is  tied  to 
the  front  brick  wall. 

The  4  inch  channels  carry  the  roof  and  intermediate  floor 
construction.  They  are  provided  with  anchors  made  of  «K 
inch  round  bars  passing  through  the  wall  and  through  6x6 
steel  plates  on  the  inner  face  of  the  wall.  The  other  end  of  the 
anchor  is  welded  to  a  i^x^  flat  piece,  through  which  two 
^-inch  bolts  are  passed  into  the  4  inch  channels.  Or  the 
whole  anchor  may  be  made  in  one  piece  from  a  I  inch  round 
bar.  In  either  case  a  thread  is  cut  into  the  anchor  and  a  nut 
is  provided,  as  shown  in  the  side  elevation.  As  the  4  inch 
channels  carry  the  roof  and  floor,  steel  templates  have  been 
provided  under  their  wall-bearing  ends.  See  Fig.  19  Plan. 

The  3x3  inch  angles  carry  no  load  except,  perhaps,  the 
weight  of  some  window  panes.  The  purpose  of  these  angles 
is  to  break  up  the  unsupported  length  of  the  main  angle 
uprights  and  to  stiffen  the  whole  frame.  These  angles  form  a 
continuous  band  all  around  the  steel  frame  and  should  be 
anchored  to  the  wall  with  clip  angles  as  shown. 

The  main  uprights  must  be  properly  bolted  and  provided 
with  a  suitable  shoe  and  plate  at  the  bottom. 

The  common  defects  encountered  in  this  kind  of  work 
are  as  follows : 

1.  Anchors   through   wall   are    omitted,    and   the    floor- 
carrying  channels  simply  rest  a  few  inches  on  the  brick  work. 
This  must  not  be  allowed.     Where  the  anchor  strikes  into  a 
partition  or  an  interior  brick  wall  the  anchor  may  be  placed 
on   a   slant,   or   it   may   be   bent   to   avoid    the    partition,    if 
necessary. 

2.  Omitting  templates  under  floor-carrying  beams. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  71 

3.  Omitting  intermediate  bracing  angles. 

4.  Defective  bolting. 

5.  Providing  no  shoe  at  the  bottom  of  the  main  uprights. 

6.  Omitting  plate  under  the  main  uprights. 

7.  Using  lighter  material  than  called  for  in  -the  approved 
plans. 

8.  Erecting  unpainted  iron  or  omitting  a  second  coat 
of  field  paint. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Hoisting  Iron  Work. 

KINDS  OF  HOISTS. 

Before  any  columns  are  set  in  their  final  position  one  or 
more  derricks  are  installed  on  the  premises  for  hoisting  the 
iron.  A  hoist  is  any  machine  used  for  raising  and  lowering 
weights.  There  are  several  kinds  of  hoists : 

1.  Cranes.    A  crane  is  a  hoist  which  in  addition  to  rais- 
ing the  load  can  also  be  made  to  move  it  in  a  horizontal 
direction.     (See  Fig.  20.)     A  crane  consist  chiefly  in  a  revolv- 
ing vertical  post  or  mast,  a  projecting  jib  or  boom,  and  a 
stay  for  sustaining  the  outer  end  of  the  jib.     The  stay  may 
be  either  a  tie  or  a  strut.     The  post,  jib  and  stay  do  not 
change  their  relative  positions. 

2.  Derricks.     A  derrick  (Fig.  21)   differs  from  a  crane 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  stay  is  always  a  tie,  consisting  of 
a  rope  or  chain,  which  may  be  shortened  or  lengthened  at  will, 
thus  raising  or  lowering  the  free  end  of  the  jib  or  boom. 
This  in  turn  revolves  about  an  axis  passing  through  its  lower 
end  and  attached  near  the  foot  of  the  mast.    In  a  derrick  the 
post,  "boom   and   stay   change  their   relative   positions.     The 
boom  can  be  made  to  raise  loads  vertically  at  higher  eleva- 
tions than  in  the  case  of  cranes.     For  this  reason  derricks 
are  generally  used  in  hoisting  iron  in  constructions. 

3.  Shear-poles  with  guys  consist  of  two  masts  brought" 
together  at  the  top,  and  tied  at  the  top  with  one  or  more 
guys  (Fig.  22).     This  device  is  used  for  hoisting  small  loads 
only. 

On  large  jobs  steel  derricks,  with  mast  and  boom  made 
of  several  sections  of  angles  and  lattice  work,  are  generally 
used.  Steel  masts  and  booms  are  usually  over  100  feet  long. 
Wooden  masts  and  booms  are  of  all  sizes,  generally  less  than 
100  feet  in  length.  A  large  boom  reaches  far  out  into  the 
street  and  covers  a  greater  range  of  the  building  at  the  same 
time. 

The  first  time  a  derrick  is  set  on  a  job  the  erector  will 
drive  five  or  six  iron  bars  or  hooks  around  the  edges  of  the 
lot.  These  hooks  are  called  the  dead  men,'  and  are  used  to 


I  tt 


*  I 

.   5 


11«>g 


8J8 

S^+j 
3 


C/5 


74  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

anchor  the  guy  ropes  that  hold  the  mast  in  place.  Good  dead 
men  are  made  from  steel  rope  coiled  around  several  times 
and  strongly  clamped  together.  A  round  J^-inch  bar  one  foot 
long  passes  through  this  coil.  The  whole  is  placed  in  the 
concrete  under  the  grillage  or  in  between  heavy  grillage 
beams,  with  exception  of  one  end  of  the  loop  which  projects 
outside.  This  is  used  to  anchor  the  end  of  the  guy  rope.  In 
some  cases,  where  another  building  on  the  adjoining  lot  has 
some  exposed  column  or  other  good  points  of  anchorage  the 
erector  may  take  advantage  of  such  points  and  use  them  as 
dead  men  with  the  consent  of  the  owners  concerned.  After  the 
dead  men,  the  block  is  set  in  the  desired  place  and  spiked  to 
prevent  sliding.  Heavy  12x12  pieces  about  8  to  10  feet  long  may 
be  required  under  the  block  to  distribute  the  load.  The  mast  is 
then  tied  on  top  with  all  guy  ropes  while  the  mast  is  still  on  the 
ground  in  a  horizontal  position.  Then  the  mast  is  raised  to 
a  plumb  position  over  the  block,  by  cleverly  manipulating 
the  guy  ropes  and  by  shoring  or  by  using  a  small  hand  der- 
rick. All  guy  ropes  are  -provided  with  turn  buckles;  by 
means  of  these  the  ropes  are  all  set  in  tension  and  the  mast 
is  made  plumb.  Then  the  boom  is  raised  in  place  by  means 
of  a  rope  tied  to  the  top  of  the  boom  and  passing  over  the 
pulley  near  the  top  of  the  mast.  A  pin  is  passed  through 
the  lower  end  of  the  boom  and  the  derrick  is  set. 

After  the  erectors  have  set  as  much  of  the  iron  as  could 
be  set  from  one  position  of  the  derrick,  the  latter  is  raised. 
All  hands  help  in  raising  the  derrick,  and  some  heavy  der- 
ricks have  thus  been  raised  in  two  or  three  hours  by  ten  or 
twelve  men.  The  beams  upon  which  the  derrick  is  to  rest 
are  carefully  and  completely  bolted  at  their  ends.  If  these 
beams  are  not  sufficiently  strong,  and  as  a  precaution  against 
overloading,  12x12  in.  wooden  blocks  or  sticks  are  provided 
vertically  under  the  derrick  beams,  reaching  from  under  the 
new  position  of  the  derrick  to  the  iron  beams  of  the  tier 
below.  Using  the  boom  as  a  vertical  post,  the  mast  is  raised, 
usually  two  tiers  at  a  time.  The  mast  is  then  guyed  and 
plumbed,  and  the  block  under  the  mast  is  securely  tied  in 
place  in  its  new  position.  Using  now  the  mast  and  its  pulley 
on  top,  the  boom  is  raised  to  the  same  floor  and  placed  with 
the  lower  end  in  its  pin  connection  as  before.  The  derrick 
is  then  completely  set. 

Where  two  or  more  derricks  are  used  on  a  job,  each  one 
in  turn  may  be  used  to  raise  the  others.  This  saves  consid- 
erable time  and  labor.  As  an  interesting  suggestion  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  in  one  instance  a  seventeen-story  building 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS         .     75 

was  erected  next  to  a  twenty-story  building  by  using  only  a 
boom  placed  on  top  of  the  twenty-story  building. 

Some  derricks  are  run  by  electricity  supplied  from  the 
street  distributing  lines.  Most  of  the  derricks,  however,  are 
run  by  steam  used  in  full  stroke  engines.  Where  electricity 
is  used  there  is  no  coal  to  be  stored  up,  no  ashes  nor  smoke. 
No  fuel  is  wasted  during  lunch  hours  or  after  the  work  is 
stopped  for  the  day.  Electric  derricks  should  be  used  espe- 
cially in  small,  narrow  buildings,  where  it  is  difficult  to  back 
up  teams  for  coal  or  for  other  materials. 

Stresses  in  Derricks.  Consider  a  derrick  in  the  position 
when  the  load  is  exactly  opposite  one  of  the  guys  G.  (Fig. 
21.).  In  practice  the  two  pulleys  shown  near  the  top  of  the 
mast  are  placed  on  the  same  axle.  Let  W  be  the  load  in 
pounds.  Then, 

the  total  stress  in  the  boom  J  is  W  X  ^~lbs.  where 
b  =  length  of  boom  in  feet,  and 

n  =  distance  in  feet  from  the  pin  at  the  bottom  of  the 
boom  to  the  near  end  of  the  tie  T. 

Total  tensile  strength  in  T  =  W  X  -jrlbs. 

P 
Total  stress  in  guy-rope  G  =  W  X  - 

m 
Total  compression  in  the  mast  P  =  W  +  stress  in  guy- 

h 

rope  X  - 
s 

Stresses  in  Shear  Poles.  Consider  the  two  masts  DL  and 
DM  replaced  by  a  single  mast  in  centre,  DC.  Also,  let  us 
take  up  first  the  case  of  the  shear-pole  with  only  one  guy-rope 
on  centre,  like  DG.  Let  W  =  total  load  in  pounds  and  a,  b, 
p,  n,  k  distances,  as  shown  in  the  figure  and  expressed  in  feet, 
viz. : 

a  ==  GH;  b  ==  DC;  n  ==  DH;k  =  CG  and  p  =  perpen- 
dicular distance  from  C  to  DG. 

We  then  have : 

ab 
Total  stress  in  DC  =  —  pounds 

nk 

a-k 

Total  stress  in  DG  —  W  -     -  pounds 

P 

The  stress  in  either  mast  will  be  found  by  multiplying 

DL 
one-half  the  stress  in  DC  by  

DC 


;6  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Where  two  guy  ropes  are  used,  the  stress  in  either  guy- 
rope  will  be  found  by  multiplying  one-half  the  stress  in  DG 

length  of  one  guy-rope  in  feet. 

by 

DG 

Ropes.  Guys  for  shear-poles  are  often  made  of  hemp  or 
Manilla  rope.  A  hemp  rope  one  inch  in  diameter  has  an  ulti- 
mate strength  of  about  6000  pounds,  and  a  safe  working 
strength  of  about  800  pounds.  Manilla  ropes  are  slightly 
stronger.  Guys  for  derricks  are  usually  made  of  iron  or 
steel  wires  twisted  into  strands,  which  in  turn  are  twisted 
into  wire  ropes.  Iron  ropes  one  inch  in  diameter  have  an 
ultimate  strength  of  about  35,000  pounds,  and  a  safe  working 
strength  of  about  6000  pounds.  Steel  ropes  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter have  an  ultimate  strength  of  about  50,000  pounds,  and 
a  working  strength  of  about  8000  pounds. 

DERRICK   ACCIDENTS. 

Here  are  a  few  of  the  most  common  derrick  accidents : 

1.  Defective  Anchorage.    The  dead  man  may  slide  out. 
An  accident  of  this  sort  is  likely  to  take  place  after  a  heavy 
rain,  where  the  dead  men  have  been  placed  into  soft  ground. 
In  one  instance  two  men  were  killed  when  the  derrick  upset 
due  to  the  loosening  of  one  dead  man. 

2.  Slipping  of  the  Block.   The  block  under  the  mast  may 
not  be  safely  anchored  against  sliding.     This  may  cause  the 
derrick  to  upset. 

3.  Overloading.   This  kind  of  accidents  are  very  serious. 
They  often   cause  the  mast  to  fall   through   the   floor  upon 
which  it  rests,  and  to  get  clear  down  to  the  cellar. 

In  one  case  an  overloaded  derrick  on  the  second  tier  fell 
into  the  cellar,  tearing  away  connection  angles  and  com- 
pletely wrecking  the  panel  below  it.  Steel  beams  were  so 
badly  twisted  that  they  had  to  be  entirely  replaced,  and  two 
men  were  injured. 

4.  Defective   Ropes.     Overloading  may  also  be  due  to 
the  use  of  defective  hoisting  ropes,  when  such  ropes  are  used 
to  carry  excessive  loads. 

In  a  20  story  building  several  erectors  were  busy  trying  to 
bring  a  column  in  a  vertical  position  preparatory  to  setting 
it  on  the  8th  tier.  As  soon  as  the  column  was  vertical  but  not 
in  place,  the  sling  broke  and  the  column  fell  from  the  8th  story 
to  the  cellar.  It  broke  through  the  planks  on  the  8th  tierr 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


77 


twisted  several  beams,  crashed  through  three  tiers  of  rilled  in 
floor  arches  and  injured  seven  people,  some  of  them  very  se- 
verely. 

5.  Insecure  Pulley.  As  mentioned  before,  there  is  a  pul- 
ley fastened  to  the  block  at  the  bottom  of  the  derrick,  and 
the  rope  from  the  engine  passes  under  it.  It  may  happen  that 
the  pulley  gets  loose,  as  it  did  in  an  accident,  investigated  by 
the  author.  The  pulley  jumped  off  the  block  while  the  derrick 
was  loaded  (Fig.  23).  In.  an  instant  the  rope  between  the 
drum  and  the  top  of  the  mast  became  one  straight  line  throw- 
ing the  sidewalk  bridge  over  12  feet  up  in  the  air.  Two  per- 
sons were  crossing  the  bridge  at  the  time;  one  jumped  off,  the 
other  was  thrown  up  and  fell  directly  over  the  engine. 


Fig.    23— Derrick   Accident.      Pulley  PP    grot    loose 
R,   Retaining  wall;   S,   Sidewalk;   B,  B,  Sidewalk  Bridge;  E.  Hoisting  Engine. 

6.  Engine  Breakdown.  Perhaps  the  most  dangerous  ac- 
cidents may  result  from  defects  which  will  set  the  engine  out 
of  order  while  a  load  is  partly  on  its  way  up. 

In  one  instance  the  load  was  just  about  2  feet  above  the 
bridge  when  the  piston  cylinder  burst.  The  steel  fell  on  the 
bridge  with  no  consequences. 

In  the  case  of  a  20  story  building  about  four  tons  of  steel 
were  hoisted  up  to  the  i8th  tier,  and  the  engineer  was  ready 
to  boom  in  the  load  when  a  cog  in  a  gear  wheel  got  out  of 
order  and  allowed  one  rope  to  unwind.  This  rope  governed 
the  boom  motion.  With  a  thunder  like  that  of  an  explosion 


78  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

the  80  ft.  steel  boom  crashed  against  the  steel  work  of  the 
i8th  tier  and  sheared  itself  into  two  halves.  The  upper  part 
turned  a  half  circle  in  the  air  and  stuck  in  between  the 
beams  of  the  I5th  tier.  The  lower  half  was  a  useless  mass  of 
junk  on  the  iSth  tier.  As  for  the  load  of  steel,  it  fell  into  the 
street  next  to  the  edge  of  the  side-walk  shed  and  buried  itself 
for  over  two  feet  into  the  asphalt  pavement  near  the  curb.  All 
the  iron  in  the  street  was  so  badly  twisted  that  it  had  to  be 
replaced.  Several  beams  near  the  i8th  tier  were  also  partly 
deformed.  None  of  the  columns -already  erected  were  seri- 
ously damaged. 

7.  The  Engineer.     Serious  accidents  could  also  happen 
when  the  engineer  running  the  derrick  is  not  sober.     Every- 
body around  the  building  would  then  be  in  danger. 

8.  Ignorance  and   Misjudgment.     Many    accidents    are 
due  to  these  causes.     An  example  will  illustrate  this  group : 


Fig.    24— Derrick    Accident. 

Boom,     made     longer     by      using      several 
boards.    Before    and    after    booming    out. 


In  erecting  a  20  story  building  by  using  two  derricks,  it 
was  found  that  the  boom  of  neither  of  them  would  take  in  a 
certain  corner  column.  The  booms  were  too  short.  The  fore- 
man stretched  one  boom  (Fig.  24)  by  tying  to  it  a  bundle  of 
four  planks  about  18  feet  long.  He  then  tied  a  rope  to  the 
new  end  of  the  boom  and  attempted  to  hoist  in  this  manner  a 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  79 

column  weighing  three  tons.  The  boom  of  course  buckled 
and  was  out  of  commission  in  an  instant.  A  new  and  larger 
derrick  was  finally  used. 

From  what  was  previously  stated  it  appears  that  derrick 
accidents  are  at  times  very  serious  and  most  regretable.  It  is 
incumbent  upon  the  inspector  as  well  as  upon  the  erection 
superintendent  of  each  job,  to  carefully  examine  all  parts  and 
accessories  of  each  derrick  as  often  as  possible,  in  order  to 
avoid  accidents  and  injuries  to  men  and  structures. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Iron  in  Retaining  Walls  and   Footings. 
RETAINING  WALLS. 

In  the  erection  of  tall  buildings,  as  soon  as  the  excavations 
will  allow,  and  as  early  as  possible,  sheath  piling  is  driven 
along  the  sidewalk  and  the  material  is  removed  to  make  room 
for  a  retaining  wall.  There  are  three  kinds  of  retailing  walls 
in  common  use: 

The  most  usual  is  the  brick  retaining  wall.  The  Code  re- 
quires that  such  walls  shall  be  laid  in  cement  mortar,  like  all 
the  walls  below  curb,  and  the  width  of  the  retaining  wall  at 
the  base  must  not  be  less  than  J4  °f  the  height  of  the  wall.  No 
iron  is  used  in  this  kind  of  retaining  walls. 

The  most  graceful  retaining  walls  which  in  the  same  time 
are  stronger  and  take  up  less  room  in  the  cellar,  are  the  rein- 
forced concrete  walls.  One  inch  reinforcing  bars  spaced  about 
18  inches  on  centres  vertically,  and  cross  bars  about  2  ft.  on 
centres  and  about  I  inch  thick  are  commonly  used.  Of  course 
in  walls  reaching  30  to  40  feet,  brick  work  may  be  out  of  ques- 
tion and  the  concrete  wall  will  be  designed  in  the  usual  way. 
The  only  objection  to  concrete  retaining  walls  is  the  need  of 
forms  and  the  time  lost  in  the  setting  of  the  concrete. 

A  third  form  of  retaining  walls  often  reaching  over  30  ft. 
is  sometimes  used.  This  consists  of  heavy  channels,  placed 
vertically  against  the  embankment  about  four  feet  apart,  and 
braced  against  the  main  structure  by  means  of  steel  beams, 
and  with  circular  brick  arches  in  between. 

PIERS  FOR  COLUMNS. 

For  tall  buildings  in  general  the  column  piers  are  carried 
down  to  rock,  using  caissons  if  necessary.  Where  the  rock 
is  not  far  from  the  proposed  cellar  bottom,  the  walls  between 
columns  are  also  started  on  rock.  Where  caissons  are  used 
or  where  the  rock  is  too  low,  steel  beams  are  placed  from  col- 
umn pier  to  column  pier,  and  then  the  brick  wall  is  started  on 
top  of  these  beams.  Where  the  ground  is  soft  and  the  rock  is 
not  within  economic  distance  from  the  surface  spread  footings 
or  piles  may  be  used. 

For  lighter  structures  the  piers  may  be  left  out,  and  the 
columns  may  rest  directly  on  a  spread  footing  carried  by  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  81 

soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  excavation.     Where  no  piers  are 
used  the  Building  Code  allows  a  bearing  capacity  of : 

1  ton  per  square  foot  on  soft  clay. 

2  tons  per  square  foot  on  clay  and  sand  in  layers,  wet  and 
springy. 

3  tons  per  square  foot  on  loam,  clay,  or  fine  sand,  firm 
and  dry. 

4  tons  per  square  foot  on  coarse  sand,  stiff  gravel  or  hard 
clay. 

These  values  are  allowed  where  no  tests  are  made.  In 
all  doubtful  cases  or  wrhere  the  owner  wants  a  larger  bearing 
allowance  the  Building  Department  will  make  tests  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  owner.  These  tests  are  generally  carried  out  as 
follows : 

Upon  a  timber  platform  constructed  for  the  purpose,  the 
load  per  square  foot  which  is  proposed  to  impose  upon  the  soil 
ivS  first  applied  and  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  for  at  least 
forty-eight  hours.  During  this  time  measurements  are  being 
taken  once  each  twenty-four  hours  or  oftener  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  settlement,  if  any.  After  forty-eight  hours  50  per 
cent  of  the  first  load  is  added,  and  the  total  load  is  left  undis- 
turbed for  at  least  six  days,  careful  measurements  and  read- 
ing being  taken  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  or  oftener,  in  order 
to  determine  the  settlement.  The  test  is  not  considered  satis- 
factory or  the  result  acceptable  unless  the  proposed  safe  load 
shows  no  appreciable  settlement  for  at  least  two  days  and  the 
total  test  load  shows  no  settlement  for  at  least  four  days. 

The  accepted  safe  load  shall  not  exceed  two-thirds  of  the 
final  test  load. 

Piers.  Before  a  pier  is  built,  the  pier  hole  must  be  in- 
spected and  approved.  Where  piers  have  to  go  down  to  solid 
rock,  a  man  gets  into  the  pier  hole  and  sounds  the  bottom  with 
a  crow  bar.  Good  rock  is  known  by  its  general  appearance 
and  by  a  fairly  clear  ringing  sound  which  it  gives  when  struck 
with  a  bar.  All  soft  spots  must  be  cleaned  out  before  the  pier 
hole  is  approved.  In  some  cases,  although  very  seldom,  these 
tests  fail  to  indicate  to  the  inspector  whether  solid  rock,  or 
simply  a  large  boulder  has  been  struck,  unless  great  care  is 
exercised. 

Sometimes  piers  have  been  erected  on  top  of  old  sewers 
or  old  well  holes.  These  are  dangerous  cases  and  mostly  met 
with  in  smaller  buildings  where  the  excavations  are  not  car- 
ried far  below  curb. 

After  the  pier  bottoms  have  been  approved,  they  are  filled 
in  with  a  mixture  not  poorer  than  I  cement,  2  sand,  and  4 


82  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

broken  stone  or  gravel.  This  is  required  by  the  Building 
Code.  Each  pier  must  be  brought  to  the  proper  elevation  on 
top,,  and  must  be  allowed  to  set  hard  before  placing  any  load 
on  top  of  it. 

If  after  setting  the  piers  come  too  high,  on  account  of  in- 
correct levelling,  the  top  of  the  piers  are  cut  down  to  within 
^/\  in-  below  the  bottom  of  the  column  footing,  whether  it  be 
a  cast  iron  base  or  a  grillage.  This  $4  inch  space  allows  for 
proper  grouting. 

In  one  case  about  fifty  piers  came  -too  low  by  from  2  to  4 
inches,  all  due  to  the  leveler's  mistake  in  starting  from  a 
wrong  bench  mark.  Wooden  forms  had  to  be  built  around 
each  pier,  after  the  pier  surface  was  made  very  rough ;  water 
was  abundantly  supplied  to  flush  the  pier  and  then  a  rich  con- 
crete was  dumped  on  top  to  the  required  elevation.  In  order 
to  make  absolutely  certain  that  these  instructions  were  car- 
ried out,  the  builder  cut  down  not  less  than  one  foot  from  the 
top  of  each  pier.  This  insured  a  real  rough  surface  of  contact 
between  the  new  and  the  old  work. 

For  piers  carried  down  to  rock  in  caissons,  the  Code  al- 
lows fifteen  tons  per  square  foot.  For  piers  carried  down  to 
rock  in  open  trenches  or  in  sheet  piling,  only  eight  tons  per 
square  foot  is  allowed.  This  difference  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
in  caisson  work  the  caisson  helps  making  a  pier  of  a  uniform 
cross  section.  The  caisson  will  keep  the  mass  together  until 
set,  and  even  then  the  caisson  as  a  rule  is  left  in  place,  and 
this  adds  some  more  strength  to  the  pier.  On  the  other  hand 
in  open  trenches  the  pier  may  be  irregular  in  cross-section, 
and  the  grout  between  stones  may  be  lost  by  absorption  into 
the  soil,  making  the  pier  useless  near  the  edges. 

For  piers  carried  down  in  caissons  to  gravel  or  hard  clay, 
the  Building  Code  allows  ten  tons  per  square  foot. 

Loads  as  high  as  30  tons  per  sq.  ft.  may  be  allowed  on 
good  rock,  where  the  piers  are  reinforced  near  the  top  by  two 
or  more  rows  of  horizontal  J^  in.  steel  round  bars,  placed 
about  six  inches  on  centres  and  about  six  inches  apart  verti- 
cally. 

GRILLAGE.  Rolled  beams,  channels  or  girders  are  gen- 
erally used  to  distribute  the  column  loads  upon  the  top  of  the 
piers.  The  Building  Code  requires  that  all  grillage  beams 
shall  be  provided  with  proper  bolts  and  separators,  to  keep 
them  in  place  at  a  proper  distance  apart.  It  is  also  specified 
that  all  grillage  must  be  inclosed  and  filled  in  solid  with  con- 
crete. This  is  usually  done  by  setting  the  grillage  on  wooden 
wedges,  at  the  proper  elevation  and  about  %  in  to  Y\  in.  above 
the  pier.  A  form  is  then  built  around  the  grillage  and  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  83 

concrete  poured  in.  Where  the  beams  are  too  close  together, 
grout,  or  fine  gravel  concrete  will  have  to  be  used  to  fill  in 
the  spaces  in  between  the  beams. 

Separators  are  placed  to  keep  the  beams  properly 
spaced.  In  the  same  time  separators  stiffen  the  web  of 
the  beams  and  for  this  reason  they  are  generally  placed 
directly  under  the  column.  The  separators  for  grillage 
are  mostly  one  inch  gas  pipe  cut  to  length,  and  pro- 
vided with  24  in.  bolts.  Other  means  for  stiffening  the  webs, 
of  grilliage  beams  and  for  preventing  them  from  crippling  un- 
der the  load,  is  to  use  heavier  standard  beams  with  thicker 
webs,  or  two  channels  back  to  back  with  a  plate  in  between 
and  riveted  together,  or  even  stiffener  angles  against  the  webs 
of  grillage  beams  like  in  an  ordinary  plate  girder. 

Where  two  layers  of  grilliage  are  used  under  a  column, 
the  upper  grillage  in  good  work  is  bolted  to  the  lower  grillage. 
Some  engineers  insist  however,  that  a  space  of  about  ^  in. 
should  be  left  between  the  two  grillage  layers  for  grouting. 
Of  course  a  grout  of  one  part  cement  and  one  sand  in  such  a 
thin  layer  will  stand  about  six  thousands  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch 
before  being  crushed  into  powder  and  the  objection  that  this 
grout  will  be  crushed  under  the  load  may  be  disregarded.  The 
reason  for  grouting  in  between  rather  than  having  the  gril- 
lages in  contact  is  that  rolled  sections  are  seldom  of  exactly 
the  same  depth.  In  fact  their  depth  will  vary  in  some  cases 
more  than  }/%  in.  Consider  now  a  column  footing  made  of  a 
lower  and  an  upper  grillage  with  no  grout  in  between  the  two, 
and  with  the  upper  grillage  consisting  of  three  I  beams.  If, 
for  instance,  the  middle  beam  of  this  upper  grillage  is  not  of 
full  depth  by  l/%  in.,  such  a  beam  will  be  useless,  because  it  will 
not  carry  any  load  until  the  other  two  beams,  overloaded  as 
they  may  be,  will  cripple  in  the  web  for  l/%  in.  Grouting  in 
between  the  two  layers  would  tend  to  avoid  these. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Cast  Iron  Bases  and  Their  Inspection. 

DETAILS  OF  A  CAST  IRON  BASE.  The  main  parts 
of  a  cast  iron  base  are  as  follows : 

The  Barrel,  is  the  central  part  of  the  base,  and  has  the 
form  of  a  closed  chamber,  usually  circular  or  rectangular.  The 
rectangular  form  is  shown  in  the  base  in  Fig.  25. 

The  upper  part  of  the  barrel  is  covered  by  the  Top  Flange 
of  the  base,  upon  which  rests  the  column.  This  top  flange  is 
provided  with  a  hole  in  the  centre,  for  grouting  purposes.  This 
grouting  hole  is  cored,  and  is  at  least  3  inches  in  diameter.  In 
addition  there  are  four  bolt  holes  near  the  corners  of  the  top 
flange.  These  holes  are  very  accurately  drilled  and  are  used 
in  achoring  the  column  to  the  base  by  means  of  J4  m-  or  r  m- 
diam.  bolts. 

The  lower  part  of  the  barrel  rests  on  the  Bottom  Flange 
of  the  base.  This  flange  spreads  the  load  over  the  pier  area. 
Like  the  top  flange,  the  bottom  flange  is  provided  with  a  3  in. 
grouting  hole  in  the  centre,  and  with  a  number  of  il/2  in. 
diam.  grouting  holes  all  around  the  barrel.  All  these  holes  are 
cored,  not  drilled. 

The  barrel  and  the  two  flanges  are  tied  together  into  one 
solid  mass  by  means  of  a  number  of  Ribs.  These  ribs  are  at 
least  i  in.  in  thickness,  and  the  longer  ribs  at  corners  are  usual- 
ly of  greater  thickness  than  the  interior  ribs. 

All  around  the  edges  of  the  bottom  flange,  the  cast  iron 
bases  are  usually  provided  with  a  vertical  rim,  about  3  inches 
in  height  and  at  least  one  inch  in  thickness.  This  rim  is 
known  as  the  Compensation  Flange.  It  greatly  increases  the 
load  carrying  capacity  of  the  base,  and  stiffens  the  joints  be- 
tween ribs  and  the  bottom  flange. 

TESTING  CAST  IRON  BASES.  In  the  case  of  small 
loads  the  bases  may  rest  on  a  steel  plate  on  top  of  a  pier,  or 
even  directly  on  the  concrete  pier  as  in  Fig.  25.  These  bases 
are  often  dumped  into  the  excavation  before  the  derrick  is  set. 
They  are  tested  by  tapping  with  a  hammer.  Good  bases  will 
stand  the  hardest  blows  a  man  could  deliver  with  a  light  sledge 
hammer.  The  same  method  of  testing  applies  also  to  cast  iron 
columns.  Good  castings  give  a  clear  ringing  sound  on  tap- 
ping. The  casting  is  gray,  soft,  with  small  crystals  and  is 


Fig.    25— Details    of    a    Cast    Iron    Base. 

T  Top  Flange.  B  Bottom  Flange.  K  Barrel.  C  Compensation 
Flange.  R  Ribs.  G  Grouting  Holes.  WW  Wooden  Wedges.  MM  Bricks. 
Arrows  indicate  the  flow  of  grout. 


86  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

easily  indented.  Sand  holes  or  blow  holes  are  detected  by  a 
dullness  in  the  sound.  Cracked  bases  give  also  a  characteristic 
sound  which  is  easily  distinguished.  Warped  bases  are  likely 
to  have  internal  stresses  due  to  unequal  contraction  or  to 
other  defects  in  manufacture  and  should  be  rejected;  the  same 
applies  to  bases  of  incorrect  dimensions. 

Repeated  Inspections.  Cast  iron  work  must  be  repeatedly 
inspected.  Bases  which  have  been  approved  upon  delivery 
may  be  cracked  in  handling. 

In  one  case  bases  were  made  to  slide  on  two  timber 
guides  running  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  bottom  of  the  excava- 
tion. One  base  left  the  guides  and  struck  a  boulder.  Luckily 
the  base  was  smashed.  Should  the  base  have  been  cracked 
only,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  particular  iron  foreman  would 
have  had  the  honesty  to  notify  the  inspector  to  this  effect.  He 
would  have  probably  taken  chances.  As  it  was",  a  new  base 
had  to  be  obtained,  bitt  this  caused  several  days  delay  in  that 
part  of  the  job. 

In  another  case  in  a  12  story  building,  a  steel  beam  fell 
down  into  the  cellar  and  broke  part  of  a  base  and  more  than 
half  of  the  lower  flange  of  a  heavy  15  inch  case  iron  column. 
The  structure  already  eight  stories  high,  had  to  be  shored  up 
and  the  column  replaced. 

SETTING  CAST  IRON  BASES.  Bases  resting  directly 
on  grillage  are  bolted  on  top  with  four  ^  m-  bolts  to  the  steel 
or  cast  iron  columns  as  in  Fig.  25.  Four  pairs  of  wooden 
wedges  are  placed  under  the  base  when  it  rests  directly  on  the 
pier.  The  base  is  centred  and  raised  to  the  proper  height. 
The  clearance  between  base  and  pier  should  not  exceed  ^4 
inch.  Next  a  mixture  of  one  part  cement  to  one  or  two  parts 
sand  is  prepared  and  this  grout  is  poured  through  the  top  of 
the  barrel,  whence  it  penetrates  under  the  base,  comes 
out  through  the  grout  holes  and  overflows  the  compen- 
sation flange.  Bricks  are  placed  on  edge  all  around  the  base 
to  stop  the  grout  from  spreading. 

Common  Defects  in  Setting.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
the  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  column  do  not  match  with  the 
holes  in  the  top  flange  of  the  cast  iron  base.  A  drift  pin  can 
not  be  used  to  enlarge  the  holes  and  make  them  match,  as  this 
may  crack  the  casting.  In  poor  work,  one  of  these  methods  is 
followed  : 

1.  Omitting  bolts  altogether. 

2.  Using  bolts  of  smaller  diameter  and  with  or  without 
washers. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  87 

3.     Using  bent  bolts. 

In  good  work  such  holes  are  made  to  match  by  enlarging 
the  opening  by  means  of  a  hand  or  a  compressed  air  reamer. 
After  the  holes  have  been  lined  up,  the  proper  size  bolts  are 
put  in. 

Bolts  without  nuts  and  loose  bolts  are  very  common  on 
jobs  which  are  poorly  supervised. 


CHAPTER  XL 
Cast  Iron  and  Steel  Columns. 

The  columns  mostly  used  in  tall  buildings  are  steel  col- 
umns. During  the  past  few  years  there  have  still  been 
erected  several  loft  buildings  with  cast  iron  columns,  some 
of  them  being  twelve  stories  in  height. 

Steel  columns  usually  come  in  two  story  lengths.  This 
gives  added  stiffness  and  saves  some  field  work.  Cast  iron  col- 
umns are  generally  one  story  long  in  order  to  avoid  cold 
shuts  in  castings.  A  longer  column  will  also  be  more  liable 
to  be  rejected  due  to  defects  near  either  end  or  near  the 
centre. 

CAST  IRON  COLUMNS  are  tested  by  tapping  with  a 
hammer  just  as  in  the  case  of  cast  iron  bases.  The  most 
common  defects  found  in  cast  iron  columns  are  as  follows : 

i.  Eccentricity.  In  casting  the  column,  the  core  has 
shifted.  This  makes  the  column  heavier  on  one  side  and 
lighter  on  the  other.  Eccentricity  is  easily  detected  by  drill- 
ing several  y%  inch  test  holes  and  by  measuring  the  thickness 
of  the  column  at  several  points.  All  closed  cast  iron  columns 
must  have  test  holes  as  required  by  the  Code.  These  test 
holes  are  drilled  in  the  shop,  generally  about  three  in  number, 
and  about  two  feet  from  the  bottom  flange.  The  Building 
Department  has  the  right  to  demand  extra  test  holes  to  be 
drilled  in  columns  or  bases  at  doubtful  points. 

The  eccentricity  can  be  easily  detected  in  a  round  col- 
umn without  test  holes,  by  causing  such  column  to  be  rolled 
on  top  of  two  smooth  edges  slightly  sloping  downward. 
These  may  be  two  steel  beams  laid  nearly  horizontally.  With 
eccentric  columns  the  rolling  is  irregular.  If  the  column  has 
a  tendency  to  settle  along  a  certain  side,  drill  a  test  hole  in 
the  part  exactly  opposite  and  measure  the  thickness  of  the 
metal.  This  will  give  the  thickness  of  the  lighter  part  of  the 
column. 

The  Code  prescribes  that  in  case  of  eccentric  columns 
whenever  the  core  has  shifted  more  than  one-fourth  the 
thickness  of  the  shell,  the  strength  shall  be  computed  assum- 
ing the  thickness  of  the  metal  all  around,  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  thinnest  part,  and  the  column  shall  be  condemned 
if  this  computation  shows  the  strength  to  be  less  than  re- 
quired by  the  Code. 


I   jnri  rfp  CJ 


I,. I,  .1. 


8  * 

1 


-0      £ 
(T     u 

CV        B 


C\J 


(D  (D   Q)  0 


90  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

2.  Cracked  Columns.     Deceitful  and  Correct  Remedies. 

Columns  are  often  cracked  in  cooling  or  in  shipping.  Dis- 
honest foundry  men  will  sometimes  fill  in  the  cracks  with 
paint.  Cracked  columns  are  discovered  by  sounding  with  a 
hammer. 

Some  times  part  of  a  flange  or  lug  may  be  broken  off  in 
setting,  as  in  Fig.  26a.  Such  defects  may  be  remedied  by 
sawing  off  the  broken  lug  at  the  root,  and  by  providing  a 
steel  knee  angle  in  place  of  the  original  lug.  This  angle  may 
be  bolted  to  the  body  of  the  column  by  means  of  ^4  m-  tap 
bolts,  and  one  or  two  through  bolts  as  shown  in  Fig.  26b, 
will  prevent  the  steel  angle  from  pulling  away  from  the  col- 
umn. 

In  the  case  of  column  to  column  connections  where  cast 
iron  columns  are  used,  the  Building  Code  requires  not  less 
than  four  ^4  m-  bolts  in  each  column  connection.  Where  a 
flange  is  chipped  off  so  that  a  portion  containing  a  bolt  hole 
is  missing,  and  when  no  injury  to  the  main  column  body  has 
been  caused,  a  heavy  steel  angle  about  6x4x^  in.  can  be  bolt- 
ed with  two  24  m-  tap  bolts  as  in  Fig.  27.  The  steel  angle 
has  a  13/16  hole  in  the  outstanding  leg  for  a.^4  m-  bolt. 

One  more  instance  of  cracked  columns  will  be  mentioned. 
A  cast  iron  column  was  being  lowered  in  the  cellar,  in  order 
to  rest  it  on  top  of  a  cast  iron  base.  During  the  lowering  of 
the  column,  the  cog  that  controlled  the  drum  of  a  hand  der- 
rick slipped  out,  and  let  the  column  strike  the  base  a  power- 
ful blow.  The  flange  of  the  column  broke.  Where  such 
things  are  liable  to  happen,  both  column  and  base  should  be 
carefully  inspected  for  cracks,  by  striking  a  few  good  blows 
with  a  sledge  hammer. 

3.  Honeycomb.     Columns  that  are  badly  honeycombed 
and  all  columns  that 'have  blowholes  or  other  imperfections 
which  reduce  the  cross-section  of  the  column  at  any  point  by 
more  than   10%   should  be   rejected   according  to  the   Code*. 
Dishonest  foundrymen  will  sometimes  fill  in  the  column  in 
such  spots  with  molten  lead.    This  is  a  very  low  and  danger- 
ous practice  and  cannot  be  sufficiently  condemned.     Careful 
tapping  with  a  hammer  will  generally  locate  such  spots  by  a 
difference  in  the  sound. 

4.  Sand  Holes  are  often  bored,  tapped  and  plugged  with 
a    headless    steel  •  bolt,    which    is    left    in    the    column.     In 
many  cases  a  piece  of  wrought  iron  is  heated  to  a  white  heat 
and   hammered   over  or   into  the   sand   hole.     This   is   more 
commonly  met  with  in  cast  iron  bases.     Sandholes  and  blow- 
holes give  a  dull  sound  on  tapping.     Test  holes  should  be 
drilled  in  doubtful  spots. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  91 

5.  Milling.  Use  of  Shims.  All  cast  iron  columns 
must  have  their  ends  milled  to  bear  and  at  right  angles  to  the 
length  of  the  column.  Where  this  is  not  the  case,  shims 
should  be  used.  Good  specifications  prohibit  the  use  of  shims, 
because  shims  concentrate  the  load  at  points,  and  occasional- 
ly crack  the  flange ;  but  mostly  because  shims  cause  eccentric 
loading  on  the  column  below. 

In  a  12  story  structure  where  only  cast  iron  columns 
were  used  the  specifications  prohibited  the  use  of  shims.  As 
the  workmanship  of  the  foundry  was  inferior,  many  columns 
could  not  be  made  plumb,  due  to  the  incorrect  milling,  and 
some  that  were  kept  plumb  by  iron  floor  beams  bolted  to  such 
columns,  would  only  touch  the  lower  column  on  edge.  See 
Fig.  28.  This  brought  the  whole  load  eccentrically  on  the 
lower  column,  causing  excessive  bending.  Wedges  were  or- 
dered to  be  put  in  at  the  high  end,  although  contrary  to  speci- 
fications, but  just  to  cause  less  eccentricity  at  the  low  end, 
and  to  make  the  load  of  the  column  above  come  nearer  the 
centre  of  the  lower  column. 

Where  shims  have  to  be  used,  they  should  not  be  nails, 
but  steel  plates  or  wedges.  Steel  plates  1/16  in.  thick,  four 
to  six  inches  wide  and  of  a  length  nearly  equal  to  the  diameter 
of  the  flange  may  be  found  suitable.  Two  or  more  such  plates 
can  be  used  together,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  when  necessary. 

•  6.  Painting.  In  good  jobs  the  ends  of  cast  iron  col- 
umns after  being  milled,  are  treated  with  white  lead  and  tal- 
low. Otherwise  all  cast  iron  work  must  be  delivered  un- 
painted  and  must  not  be  painted  until  inspected  and  approved 
by  the  Building  Department.  The  inspector  may  order  any 
cast  iron  work  that  was  painted  before  approval,  to  be  wash- 
ed with  kerosene,  benzine  or  other  dissolvent,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  the  paint  and  uncovering  the  metal  for  in- 
spection. After  inspection,  all  iron  work  must  receive  at 
least  one  field  coat.  This  is  usually  done  in  cast  iron  work 
after  the  columns  are  in  place. 

7.  Bolting.  Cast  iron  structures  are  generally  inferior 
to  steel  structures  mainly  on  account  of  having  bolted  con- 
nections. These  connections  do  not  possess  the  rigidity  of- 
fered by  riveted  connections  in  steel  work.  As  it  is,  however, 
unusual  attention  must  be  given  to  bolting  in  cast  iron  work. 

All  bolts  must  be  of  sufficient  length  to  grip  the  full 
dept  of  the  nut. 

All  bolts  must  be  tight. 

All  bolts  in  column  flanges  must  be  ^4  in.  diameter; 
and  no  bolts  should  be  less  than  ^4  m-  diameter  when  used 
in  13/16  in.  holes. 


92  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

No  bolts  should  be  omitted.  Where  holes  do  not  match, 
a  drift  pin  cannot  be  used  as  it  may  crack  the  cast  iron.  The 
hole  should,  therefore,  be  reamed  out  with  a  hand  or  a  com- 
pressed air  reamer  or  drill. 

8.  Plumbing  Up.  All  columns  should  be  made  plumb 
and  kept  plumb  by  means  of  guy  ropes  with  turn-buckles. 
These  guy  ropes  running  transversely  from  wall  columns  to 
interior  columns,  will  also  strengthen  the  structure  during 
construction  against  wind  pressure. 

As  an  additional  measure  of  precaution,  the  brick  walls 
and  floor  arches  should  be  carried  up  as  quickly  as  possible. 
The  guy  ropes  may  be  removed  from  floors  where  the  masonry 
has  been  completed,  and  has  set  sufficiently. 

STEEL  COLUMNS. 

1.  Lengths.     These   are   generally  made    in    two    and 
three   story   lengths.     The   three   story   columns   are   mostly 
used  as  the  last  sections  near  the  top  of  the  buildings.  While 
such  columns  save  some  splices  and  field  riveting  and  give  a 
stronger  job,  they  would  be  too  heavy  and  too  difficult  to 
handle,  if  used  in  the  lower  stories. 

2.  Temporary  Bolts.     All  steel  columns  are  set  approxi- 
mately plumb;  temporary  bolts  are  next  provided  in  the  col- 
umn splices.     It  is  customary  to  demand  not  less  than  50% 
of  temporary  bolts  in  connections  which  are  to  be  riveted. 
These  temporary  bolts : 

(1)  Increase  the  resistance  of  the  structure  against  wind 
pressure  and  are  therefore  more  necessary  in  long  columns 
and  in  tall,  narrow  structures. 

(2)  They  make  field  connections  to  match  and  to  come  fair 
before  riveting. 

3.  Erection  and  Temporary  Bracing.     Whenever  prac- 
ticable columns  are  erected  in  panels  of  four,  and  the  beams 
in  between  are  set  in  place  to  tie  them  together.    In  addition 
columns  in  outside  panels  are  tied  with  diagonal  steel  ropes 
to  the  first  or  second  floor  immediately  below.     These  ropes 
are  provided   with  turn-buckles  and   are  used   to  draw  the 
columns  into  a  plumb  position.     Such  ropes  greatly  increase 
the  resistance  of  the  structure  against  wind  pressure.     For 
this  reason  more  diagonal  braces  are  required  in  taller  and 
narrower  buildings. 

The  columns  are  next  made  plumb  and  then  the  splices 
are  riveted.  To  insure  plenty  of  work  on  hand  for  the  rivet- 
ers, the  iron  superintendent  will  often  have  several  splices 
temporarily  bolted,  along  any  vertical  line  of  columns,  thus 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  93 

keeping  the  erectors  considerably  ahead  of  the  riveters. 
When  the  number  of  unriveted  or  open  splices  becomes  too 
large  the  structure  may  be  endangered  through  lack  of  rigid- 
ity ;  in  fact  it  may  be  blown  out  of  plumb.  To  avoid  such  ac- 
cidents it  is  customary  to  allow  not  more  than  three  open 
splices  along  any  column,  in  structures  that  are  well  tied  with 
longitudinal  steel  ropes. 

4.  Riveting.     Riveting   splices   may   proceed   from   any 
column ;  some  engineers,  however,  will  start  with  the  outside 
columns.    Column  splices  are  usually  riveted  in  all  tall  build- 
ings, while  beam  connections  are  either  bolted  or  riveted. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  that  there  is  nothing  in  the 
building  code  compelling  an  architect  to  specify  the  use  of 
rivets,  when  he  desires  to  use  bolts,  except  that  about  20% 
more  bolts  are  required  for  field  work  by  making  the  allow- 
able unit  stresses  for  bolts  smaller  than  for  rivets.  Now 
bolting  column  splices  is  half  as  expensive  as  riveting,  and  in 
the  case  of  a  new  twelve  story  loft  all  column  splices  as  well 
as  beam  connections  were  bolted.  v  The  iron  contractor  had 
his  choice  between  bolting  and  riveting;  hence  he  preferred 
bolting  which  was  much  cheaper.  This  however  is  not  good 
practice  and  the  usual  specifications  should  state  that  all  col- 
umn splices  as  well  as  beam  connections  within  three  feet 
from  a  column  should  be  riveted ;  other  connections  may  be 
either  bolted  or  riveted. 

In  a  twelve  story  building  intended  to  be  used  as  a  print- 
ing establishment,  all  connections  have  been  riveted. 

5.  Splice  Plates.     Before  riveting  column  splices,  it  is 
very  important  that  the  splice  plates  should  be  straight  and 
that  all  holes  should  match.     Bent  splices  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  tight  rivets.    This  is  due  to  a  spring  action  in  the  steel 
plate  when  bent.     Plates  slightly  bent  through  handling,  or 
while  in  transit,  may  be  straightened  out  before  riveting  by 
means  of  a  few  blows  with  a  heavy  sledge  hammer. 

6.  Milling.     According   to   the   Building   Code   all   col- 
umns must  be  milled  at  their  ends  at  right  angles  to  their 
axes.  Milling  can  be  performed  with  wonderful  accuracy  and 
up  to  1/500  of  an  inch  if  necessary.     Where  milling  is  not 
carefully  performed,  columns  will  bear  on  one  edge  only  (see 
Fig.   29),   causing  dangerous  eccentric  loads   and   additional 
bending  in  the  columns  below. 

7.  Incorrect  Lengths  and  Remedies  for  Same.     Another 
case  of  a  similar  nature  results  where  a  column  is  cut  too 
short   (see  Fig.   30),  or  where  the  field  holes  in  the  splice 
plates  are  punched  too  high.    In  such  cases  the  upper  column 


94  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

will  not  bear  at  all  upon  the  lower  and  clear  daylight  may  be 
seen  between  the  two  columns,  while  all  the  load  is  carried 
by  the  splices. 

These  conditions  may  be  remedied  in  one  of  the  follow- 
ing ways :  (a)  By  shiming  or  wedging.  Wedges  of  proper 
size  may  be  driven  in  between  the  column  ends.  This,  how- 
ever, tends  to  concentrate  the  load  at  points  instead  of  dis- 
tributing it  uniformly.  Wedges  should  not  be  used  in  good 
work,  (b)  By  providing  the  splice  plates  with  sufficient 
rivets  to  safely  carry  the  load,  or  by  providing  additional 
splice  plates,  as  in  Fig.  31.  In  this  case  first  find  from  the 
Table  of  Loads  or  the  Column  Schedule  for  the  particular 
structure  under  consideration,  the  load  carried  by  the  upper 
column.  Then  find  out  if  the  upper  column  bears  partly  on 
the  lower  column.  For  every  square  inch  of  full  bearing  al- 
low 16,000  Ibs.  as  per  Building  Code.  The  balance  of  the 
load  must  be  taken  up  by  additional  rivets  in  shear.  For  in- 
stance:  let  the  load  on  the  upper  column  in  Fig.  3ia  be  72 
tons.  By  sticking  the  blade  of  a  penknife  in  between  the  ends 
of  the  two  columns  it  is  found  that  the  upper  column  bears 
only  on  the  part  shown  in  black  in  Fig.  3ib.  Let  us  say  that 
this  area  is  about  4  square  inches.  This  will  transmit  in  bear- 
ing at  16,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  4X16,000  Ibs.,  or  32  tons.  The 
16  rivets  in  the  upper  half  of  the  splice  will  carry  16X2=32 
tons  in  shear.  We  have  so  far  accounted  for  64  tons.  Addi- 
tional means  must  be  provided  for  the  remaining  8  tons  up  to 
72  tons.  Two  y%  in.  plates  may  be  used,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  splice  as  shown  on  the  inside  of  the  column  in  Fig.  313. 
This  will  place  the  new  rivets  in  double  shear,  and  carry  eas- 
ily the  8  additional  tons.  Instead  of  using  inside  fish  plates 
as  in  this  case,  extra  rivets  may  be  provided  in  the  original 
splice  plates,  and  where  the  loads  are  heavy  additional  one 
inch  diam.  rivets  may  be  used  in  the  splice  plates  instead  of 
%  in.  rivets,  (c)  Where  the  columns  are  correctly  milled  and 
the  holes  in  splice  plates  have  been  punched  too  high,  the 
upper  column  may  be  lowered  until  it  fully  bears  on  top  of 
the  lower  column.  The  operation  requires  careful  manipula- 
tion, (d)  When  the  gap  between  the  two  columns  is  uniform 
in  width,  a  rectangular  steel  plate  of  sufficient  thickness  to  fill 
the  opening  may  be  driven  in  between  the  two  column  ends, 
in  such  manner  as  to  make  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  col- 
umn to  come  in  full  contact  with  this  plate,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  32a. 

8.  Butt  Plates.  Such  plates  are  generally  used  in  all 
cases  where  the  column  section  changes,  and  are  known  as 
butt  plates  or  bed  plates.  Following  are  common  defects  in 
butt  plates : 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  95 

a.  When  the  plates  are  shipped  loose,  some  may  get  lost 
on  the  way,  and  shims  may  be  substituted  in  order  not  to 
delay  the  erection  work ;  or  else  the  plates  are  left  out.     Both 
these  methods  should  be  condemned. 

b.  The  plates  may  get  mixed  up.     In  this  way  plates 
slightly   larger  than   necessary   are   driven   with   quite   some 
trouble  in  some  splices,  while  plates  too  small  to  cover  the 
lower   column   section   are   used   in   other  places,   where  the 
larger  butt  plates  should  have  been  used. 

Butt  plates  should  cover  the  lower  column  completely 
and  should  extend  in  between  splice  plates  from  splice  to 
splice.  In  good  jobs  butt  plates  must  not  run  shorter  than 
1/16  inch  at  either  end.  When  the  clearance  between  the 
edge  of  the  butt  plate  and  the  splice  plate  is  larger  than 
1/16  inch,  the  butt  plate  should  be  pulled  out  and  replaced. 

Most  of  the  above  defects  can  be  easily  avoided,  and  bet- 
ter work  can  be  obtained  in  a  shorter  time,  when  the  butt 
plates  are  shipped  to  the  job  bolted  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
column.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  32.  The  bottom  view  repre- 
sents (Fig.  32b)  the  cross  section  of  two  H-Columns,  the 
upper  column  being  of  smaller  section  than  the  lower  one. 
Fig.  32a  shows  a  butt  plate  between  the  two  columns  and 
two  angles  riveted  to  the  web  of  the  upper  column  and  to 
the  butt  plate. 

9.  Filler  Plates.  When  the  depth  of  the  upper  col- 
umn is  less  than  the  depth  of  the  lower  column,  the  differ- 
ence in  depth  is  made  up  by  providing  packing  known  as 
filler  plates.  These  filler  plates  make  possible  tight  riveting; 
they  also  stiffen  the  column  splice,  and  when  they  are  fairly 
thick  and  well  riveted  to  the  upper  column,  the  fillers  "may 
be  milled  even  on  the  bottom  with  the  main  column  section 
and  they  will  help  distributing  the  load  of  the  upper  column 
upon  the  top  of  the  lower  column.  Fig.  32a.  shows  two  fillers 
FF  between  the  upper  column  and  the  splice  plate.  There 
are  four  of  these  fillers  in  this  splice,  and  the  fillers  do  not 
bear  upon  the  bed  plate. 

In  good  work  instead  of  two  such  fillers  like  FF  only 
one  wide  filler  taking  in  the  whole  width  of  the  upper  column 
is  used.  Furthermore  these  fillers  are  milled  to  bear  and 
they  extend  above  the  splice  plate  for  about  three  inches,  or 
enough  to  have  the  fillers  riveted  in  the  shop  with  a  couple  of 
rivets  to  the  upper  column.  Where  this  is  not  done,  the 
fillers  are  shipped  bolted  to  the  upper  column,  and  very  often 
they  get  lost  on  the  way  and  are  left  out.  This  is  bad  practice 
and  should  not  be  allowed. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Beams  and  Girders* 

USES.  Beams  and  girders  are  used  in  steel  structures  in 
a  great  variety  of  forms  for  many  purposes.  We  may  distin- 
guish several  classes  of  beams : 

(a)  Wall  Beams.     These  are  beams  carrying  walls  and 
are  usually  referred  to  as  wall  beams  or  wall  girders.     They 
may  be  single  beams  or  Bethlehem  H.  sections,  or  they  may  be 
standard  beams  provided  with  a  plate  on  top  or  on  bottom  to 
support  the  masonry.     Many  wall  beams  are  made  of  double 
standard  beams  with  separators  in  between  them  and  bolted 
together.     In  some  other  cases  plain  built  up  girders  or  even 
box  girders  may  be  used  to  support  brick  walls. 

(b)  Floor  Beams.     These  are  used  to  carry  floor  arches 
and  they  usually  frame  either  in  between  columns  or  in  be- 
tween other  beams. 

(c)  Tie  Beams  are  used  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  tieing  in 
the  columns  to  one  another  and  to  the  walls.     These  beams 
generally  carry  no  load  and  are  often  replaced  by  channels, 
angles,  rods  or  plates. 

Very  often  one  beam  belongs  in  the  same  time  to  two  or 
more  of  these  groups,  and  its  connections  at  each  end  must  be 
designed  accordingly. 

'(d)  Struts.  All  beams  stiffen  the  structure.  In  tall  build- 
ings it  is  sometimes  found  necessary  to  figure  some  of  the 
floor  beams  in  between  columns  as  struts.  Such  beams  are 
made  sufficiently  heavy  to  take  up  wind  pressure  in  addition  to 
floor  loads. 

CONNECTIONS.  Beam  connections  are  generally  fig- 
ured for  shear  and  for  bearing;  in  special  cases  the  connections 
are  investigated  for  their  resistance  to  bending  caused  by  ec- 
centricity, for  crippling  or  tearing  across  in  between  rivets 
and  for  resistance  to  stresses  caused  by  wind  pressure.  In  or- 
der to  reduce  costs,  it  is  customary  to  use  the  same  type  of  a 
connection  throughout  a  whole  structure  whenever  possible. 
This  establishes  then  a  typical  or  standard  set  of  connections. 
Some  structural  plants  have  their  own  standard  connections 
and  they  employ  same  on  all  jobs,  whenever  possible.  Any 
connection  which  is  not  standard  should  be  drawn  to  a  larger 
scale  and  filed  with  the  plans  for  approval.  The  standard  con- 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


97 


nections  for  steel  beams  framing  into  steel  columns  or  girders 
are  different  from  the  standard  connections  of  beams  framing 
into  cast  iron  columns. 

Standard  Connections  for  Steel  Beams  to  Steel  Columns 
and  Girders.  While  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  universal 
standard,  the  variations  between  different  standard  connec- 
tions are  small.  The  connections  adopted  by  the  Carnegie 
Steel  Co.  are  in  common  use  in  this  country  and  have  been  se- 
lected by  the  author  as  an  illustration  of  standard  connec- 
tions. 

These  connections  are  figured  allowing  a  working  unit 
stress  of  20,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  for  bearing,  and  10,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch  for  shear.  In  most  cases  it  will  be  found 
that  the  number  of  rivets  provided  is  ample.  There  are 
rare  instances,  however,  where  the  standard  connections  are 
not  sufficiently  strong,  as  in  the  case  of  beams  on  short 
spans  loaded  to  their  fu)l  capacity.  The  following  table  gives 
the  minimum  spans  of  I -Beams  and  Channels  for  which  stand- 
ard connection  angles  may  be  safely  used,  with  the  beams 
loaded  to  their  full  capacity.  The  same  connections  may  be 
used  for  all  greater  spans.  For  spans  shorter  than  given  in 
this  table,  and  for  beams  fully  loaded,  additional  rivets  may 
be  found  necessary. 

TABLE  OF  MINIMUM  SPANS. 

For  which  standard  connections  may  be  safely  used  with  beams  uniformly 
loaded  to  their  full  capacity,  figured  with  an  allowable  fibre  stress  of  16,000 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  in  the  beams. 


Span 
Shape             in  feet 

Span 
Shape             in  feet 

Span 
Shape             in  feet 

3  in, 
3  in. 
4  in. 
4  in. 
5  in. 
5  in. 
6  in. 
6  in. 
7   in. 
7  in. 

5.5     Ibs.    1.7 
7.5     Ibs.    12 
7.5     Ibs.    2.8 
10.5     Ibs.    2.2 
9.75  Ibs.     41 
14.75   Ibs.     3.7 
12.25  Ibs.     56 
17.  IT.   Ibs.    5.3 
15.00   Ibs.     4.9 
20        Ibs.    3.6 

8  in. 
8  in. 
9  in. 
9  in. 
10  in. 
10  in. 
12  in. 
12  in. 
15  in. 
15  in. 

18        Ibs.     6.2 
25.25  Ibs.     5.1 
21.0     Ibs.     7.7 
35.0     Ibs.     7.5 
25.0     Ibs.     9.3 
40.0     Ibs.     9.6 
31.5     Ibs.    7.3 
40       Ibs.     8.2 
42        Ibs.  10.2 
60        Ibs.  10.8 

15.  in. 
15  in. 
18  in. 
18  in. 
20  in. 
20  in. 
20  in. 
24  in. 
24   in    I 

80        Ibs.  14.5 
100      Ibs.  18.1 
55        Ibs.  13.7 
70        Ibs.  12.4 
65        Ibs.  13.9 
80        Ibs.  14.8 
100      Ibs.  16.7 
80        Ibs.  17.7 
100      Ibs.  17.1 

Shape 


Span  in  feet 


3  in. 

Channel 

4.0 

Ibs. 

1.1 

3  in. 

Channel 

6.0 

Ibs. 

0.8 

4  in. 

Channel 

5.25 

Ibs. 

1.9 

4  in. 

Channel 

T.L'o 

Ibs. 

1.4 

5   in. 

Channel 

6.5 

Ibs. 

2.8 

5  in. 

Channel 

11.5 

Ibs. 

2.5 

6  in. 

Channel 

8.0 

Ibs. 

3.9 

6  in. 

Channel 

155 

Ibs. 

3.9 

7  in. 

Channel 

9.75 

Ibs. 

3.4 

7  in. 

Channel 

19.75 

Ibs. 

2.9 

Shape 

Span  in  feet 

8 

iu. 

Channel 

11.25 

Ibs. 

4.4 

8 

in. 

Channel 

21.25 

Ibs. 

36 

9 

in. 

Channel 

13.25 

Ibs. 

5.4 

9 

in. 

Channel 

25.00 

Ibs. 

4.7 

10 

in. 

Channel 

15.0 

n.s. 

i;  <; 

10 

in. 

Channel 

35.0 

Ibs. 

7.0 

12 

in. 

Channel 

20.5 

Ibs. 

.1.4 

12 

in. 

Channel 

40.0 

Ibs. 

66 

15 

in. 

Channel 

33.0 

Ibs. 

7.4 

15 

in. 

Channel 

55.0 

Ibs. 

8.7 

The  minimum  spans  given  in  the  above  table  may  be 
found  approximately  by  the  following  rules : 


For  3Wav\d4w.l§at\clS 
2-fe  Gx4x%-0'-3'H 
For  5 in. 

&& 


<>— o 


U 

fe 


x  V-OrSV 

,ndS 


.  . 

•tor 

(VJ, 

^Ji 

(  —  " 

'  —  ' 

J 

cJ 


=  — 


i — $ 


-b  6  *  4  ,3/8-0-7 

For  I?  ;«    Is  and  1. 


-li  6  «  4 

For    I5\«. 




— 

I 
•«  -.    i, 

1 
t       | 

/ 

"N 

1       I 

r^ 

•      . 

j       I 

fa 

•  m 

( 

ro 

V7 

r  J 

^ 

i 

- 

/ 

D, 

i 

•\ 

c    ' 

ro 

f 

/ 

N 

= 
ro 

r     ' 

i 

t 

ro 

i 

\/o 

\ 

) 

r 

i 

For  1  8  in.  and  SO  m.£. 


-  is  4  x 
Fo  v    S4in,3 


Fig.     33.  —  Standard     Connections     for     Steel. 

All   shop   rivets    %    in.   diam. 

All   holes  for  field  rivets   13-16   in.   diam. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  99 

Minimum  span  in  feet  for  I-Beams  =  fa  X  depth  of  beam 
in  inches. 

Minimum  span  in  feet  for  Channels  =  }/2  X  depth  of 
channel  in  inches. 

Standard  Connections  for  Steel  Beams  to  Cast  Iron  Col- 
umns. Cast  iron  is  weak  in  bending.  It  it  therefore  necessary 
that  heavy  lugs  should  be  used  under  the  seat  of  each  beam. 
It  is  equally  important  to  see  that  the  end  of  the  beam  rests 
on  the  seat. 

Following  is  a  set  of  standard  connections  for  beams 
framing  into  cast  iron  columns.  These  connections  are  in 
common  use. 


°° 


CVJ 


<P 


rO 


00 


i*V 


pro 


10 


.4" 


For  8"— C)  and  \0"be<xm* 


4' 

g" 

1 

.  r 

C^| 

«  * 

10 

" 

! 

ifl 

»    ' 

.      ' 

:        10 

'  ___ 

—                 —IPJ 

'oil 

-!<ol  ^", 

T  W 

M" 

,i 

,          -& 

\ 

4 

\, 

r. 

.  O^l"  U 

teams. 

r.    34. — Standard    Beam    Connections    to    Cast  Iron   Columns. 

All  lugs  are  to  be  1  in.   thick  except  where    otherwise   noted. 
All  holes  drilled  for   %   in.  diam.  bolts. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
Sidewalk  Beams. 

1.  Uses.     These  beams  are  intented  to  support  the  side- 
walk over  the  vault  area,  as  well  as  the  metal  door  frames  used 
for  stairwells  and  ash-hoists  openings.     In  addition  sidewalk 
beams  will  also  brace  the  top  of  the  street    retaining    walls 
against  the  steel  columns  of  the  main  structure.    Guide  rails  of 
ash-hoists  and  other  sidewalk  elevators  are  often  kept  in  line 
by  the  sidewalk  beams. 

2.  Loading.     All  sidewalk  framing  must  be  designed  to 
carry  not  less  than  300  Ibs.  live  load  per  square  foot.    By  using 
roughly  400  Ibs.  per  sq.  foot  for  sidewalk  loading,  this  will  al- 
low for  both  the  dead  and  the  live  load.     While  this  loading- 
is  seldom  realized  in  practice,  it  is  nevertheless  essential  for 
safety,  when  we  consider  the  fact  that    heavy    merchandise 
boxes  are  often  dumped  on  edge  from  express  wagons  upon  the 
sidewalk.     This  also  shows  why  considerable  care  must  be 
given  to  all  connections  of  sidewalk  beams. 

It  often  happens  that  such  beams  are  only  at  first  put  in 
an  approximately  correct  position  and  then  bolted  temporarily, 
and  the  erector  may  or  may  not  have  the  intention  to  go  over 
these  connections  before  the  job  is  finished.  The  masons  and 
floor  arch  people  will  often  cover  the  top  and  sides  of  some 
of  the  connections  before  all  the  bolts  have  been  put  in. 
Only  constant  inspection  will  secure  good  work. 

3.  Framing.     Sidewalk  beams  are  usually  wall  bearing 
at  one  end  and  bolted  to  the  main  steel  work  at  the  other  end. 
When  these  beams  are  not  riveted  to  the  main  structure,  they 
may  be  removed  whenever  necessary  to  allow  for  the  passage 
of  boilers  or  elevator  machinery  from  the  street  into  the  cellar. 
Instead  of  this,  several  beams  near  the  centre  of  the  first  tier 
may  be  left  temporarily  bolted,  without  floor  arches  in  between 
and  covered  with  planks,  until  all  necessary  boilers  and  ma- 
chinery has  been  lowered  into  the  cellar. 

At  this  time  it  often  happens  that  the  steel  contractor  will 
refuse  to  bolt  any  such  beams  for  the  second  time,  while  me- 
chanics who  have  temporarily  removed  them  to  lower  their 
machinery  or  boilers  will  often  not  put  all  the  bolts  back  and 
will  seldom  make  them  tight.  Connections  of  such  interior 
beams  can  be  inspected  more  readily  than  connections  in  the 
front  of  the  building,  as  the  latter  are  often  covered  with 


ioj  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

brick  work  before  being  inspected.  Having  in  view  the  im- 
portance of  good  permanent  connections  in  case  of  all  side- 
walk beams,  it  is  reasonable  to  specify  and  insist  upon  having 
sidewalk  beams  riveted  to  the  columns,  whenever  pos- 
sible. While  the  Code  gives  no  specific  information 
on  this  point,  whenever  the  approved  plans  specify 
that  all  column  connections  must  be  riveted,  this  provision 
should  be  enforced  also  in  case  of  connections  of  sidewalk 
beams  to  columns.  Connections  of  small  framing  beams  in 
between  the  main  sidewalk  beams  may  be  bolted. 

DEFECTIVE  WORK.     Following  are  a  few  examples  of 
more  or  less  common  occurrence  in  sidewalk  framing. 

1.  Incorrect  Elevation.     The  beams  may  be  set  too  high 
or  too  low.    In  one  instance  the  sidewalk  had  an  easy  continu- 
ous slope  along  the  whole  fifty  feet  of  frontage.     One  end  of 
this  front  building  line  was  four  inches  higher  than  the  other. 
It  happened  that  the  surveyor  did  not  notice  this  difference  in 
elevation  and  he  considered  the  building  line  and  the  curb 
line  as  being  level.     He  started  the  work  from  the  low  point. 
Then  came  the  iron  erector  and  set  his  grillage  and  other  mem- 
bers using  the  high  end  of  the  building  line  as  his  starting 
point.     The  result  was  that  all  the  sidewalk  beams  were  set 
too  high  and  nearly  all  of  them  had  to  be  reset.    This  required 
drilling  new  holes  and  resulted  in  defective  connections,  which 
had  to  be  carefully  reinforced. 

2.  Slope.     All  sidewalks  in   Manhattan  must  be  raised 
from  the  curbstone  in  the  proportion  of  2  inches  in  10  feet, 
under  the  penalty  of  $10  (Art.  III.,  Sec.  118,  City  Ordinances). 
This  slope  is  usually  formed  by  lowering  the  outer  ends  of  the 
steel   beams   in   the   same   proportion;   when    necessary,   the 
same  slope  may  be  obtained  by  using  an  extra  fill  in  the  side- 
walk material  and  sloping  its  top  surface  as  required  while 
the  steel  beams  are  set  level.    This,  however,  could  not  be  done 
when  the  first  tier  beams  are  set  too  high. 

3.  Wrong  Setting.     In     some     cases     several     sidewalk 
beams  were  set  upside  down.     In  the  shop  all  tie-rod  holes 
were  punched  3  m.  from  the  top.    Under  the  conditions,  some 
tie-rod  holes  came  3  in.  from  the  bottom.    All  the  beams  that 
were  upside  down  had  to  be  unbolted   and  turned  in  their 
proper  position,  thus  bringing  all  tie  rod  holes  in  a  level  line 
3  in.  from  the  top.    Otherwise  new  tie  rod  holes  would  have  to 
be  drilled  in  those  beams. 

4.  Anchors  and  Plates.     The  outer  end  of  most  sidewalk 
beams  bear  on  the  retaining  walls.     At  this  end  steel  tem- 
plates and  y\  in.  government  anchors  or  other  good  anchors 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  103 

should  be  provided.  These  anchors  are  sometimes  left  out 
where  the  beams  have  considerable  bearing  and  on  a  short 
span.  This  however  is  against  the  Code  and  against  good 
practice  and  is  not  met  with  in  first  class  work.  Where  there 
is  a  possibility  that  government  or  other  loose  anchors  may 
be  stolen  or  omitted,  architects  may  specify  bolted  or  riveted 
anchors  consisting  of  two  knee  angles  attached  to  the  end  of 
each  beam. 

5.  Vault  Framing.     Sidewalk  beams  are  often  used  to 
support  a  vault  roof  over  an  area.     According  to  Art.  VI., 
Section  186,  of  City  Ordinances,  every  description  of  opening 
below  the  surface  of  the  street  in  front  of  any  shop,  store, 
house  or  other  building,  if  covered  over,  shall  be  considered 
and  held  to  be  a  vault  or  cistern  within  the  meaning  of  said 
article.     A  grating  or  open  iron  work  used  to  connect  an  en- 
trance to  the  sidewalk  by  spanning  over  an  area  is  not  a  vault ; 
also  openings  used  exclusively  as  places  for  descending  to  the 
cellar  floor  of  any  building  or  buildings  by  means  of  steps 
must  not  be  considered  as  vaults.    (Art.  VI.,  Sec.  187,  City  Or- 
dinances).   Also,  vaults  must  not  extend  further  than  the  line 
of  the  sidewalk  or  curbstone  (Art.  VI.,  Sec.  173,  City  Ordi- 
nances). 

Before  a  vault  is  built,  a  permit  must  be  secured 
from  the  Bureau  of  Highways.  Such  permits  are  granted  only 
after  the  payment  to  the  City  of  a  sum  varying  between  30  cts. 
and  $2  per  sq.  ft.  of  vault  area,  depending  upon  location.  But 
permits  for  vaults  in  public  highways  are  in  the  nature  of  re- 
vocable private  easements  which  can  be  fully  enjoyed  until 
revoked  by  and  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  vaults  are  put  up  without  a 
permit.  This  is  a  violation  which  may  be  prosecuted  and  a 
penalty  of  $100  or  more  may  be  enforced.  In  addition  a  per- 
mit may  be  refused,  in  which  case  the  whole  vault  must  be 
taken  down.  Cases  of  erecting  vaults  without  a  permit  are 
reported  to  the  Bureau  of  Buildings  by  either  construction  or 
iron  inspectors ;  thence  the  cases  are  usually  referred  to  the 
Bureau  of  Highways  for  prosecution. 

6.  Old  Vaults.    It  often  happens  that  old  buildings  hav- 
ing vaults  are  demolished  to  make  room  for  new  structures. 
It  is  reasonably  presumed  that  any  vault  which  has  existed 
for  a  number  of  years  has  been  originally  constructed  with 
the  consent  of  the  municipal  authorities.     It  is  therefore  not 
necessary  to  ask  for  a  new  permit  or  to  pay  a  new  vault  fee 
as  long  as  the  old  vault  is  not  demolished.     However,  when 
an  old  vault  is  taken  down  and  reconstructed  a  new  permit 
must  be  secured,  as  demolishing  a  vault  will  automatically 


104  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

discontinue  the  original  permit.  This  causes  old  vaults  to  be 
carefully  shored  and  incorporated  within  new  vault  framing 
when  larger  vaults  are  desired.  Where  this  is  the  case  the 
iron  work  of  the  old  vault  must  be  carefully  inspected  as  to 
quality,  strength  and  connections,  considering  in  addition  to 
the  old  load  carried  by  the  vault  framing  in  place  any  extra 
load  which  may  be  thrown  upon  the  old  iron  beams  by  means 
of  connections  of  the  new  framing  to  the  old  beams  in  place. 

7.  Hoist  Guides.  Channel  beams  are  often  used  in  vault 
framing  to  keep  in  line  the  guides  of  the  ash  hoists  or  other 
sidewalk  freight  elevators.  When  I-beams  are  used  around 
elevator  shafts  or  around  openings  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  cut  through  one  or  both  flanges  of  such  beams  to  make 
room  for  the  elevator  guide  rails.  This  arrangement  will 
often  weaken  the  sidewalk  beam  to  an  extent  requiring  re- 
inforcement. The  sidewalk  beam  may  be  reinforced  by  means 
of  one  or  more  plates  well  bolted  to  the  top  or  sides  of  the 
beam.  When  the  guide  rail  is  heavy  and  bears  at  its  lower 
end  solidly  like  a  strut,  the  beam  may  be  reinforced  by  means 
of  a  knee  angle  placed  under  the  beam  and  bolted  to  the 
guide  rail. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Erection  and  Inspection   of  Stairways 

i.  Inspection.  Perhaps  no  part  of  a  structure  requires 
more  attention  from  the  part  of  the  inspector  or  superin- 
tendent than  the  stairways.  Any  other  part  of  the  steel 
structure  receives  a  large  proportion  of  its  final  allowable 
load  in  the  form  of  floor  or  wall  dead  loads,  and  the  failure 
of  such  a  beam  will  most  likely  be  noticed  long  before  it 
actually  takes  place,  through  the  increased  deflection  or 
through  cracks  in  the  plastered  ceiling  below  it.  Furthermore 
such  a  failure  may  be  of  local  importance,  and  the  resulting 
damages  might  affect  a  small  portion  of  a  single  floor. 

On  the  other  hand,  consider  what  happens  in  the  case  of 
outside  stairways.  Their  builder  is  paid  after  his  work  is 
completed  and  before  these  stairways  have  been  made  to 
carry  practically  any  load  except  the  dead  load  of  the  metal 
itself,  which  amounts  usually  to  "only  one-tenth  of  the  total 
load.  In  this  way  there  is  nothing  to  show  by  actual  loading 
whether  the  stairway  anchorage  and  connections  could  stand 
much  more  than  the  negligible  weight  of  the  iron  itself. 
Furthermore,  the  effect  of  wind  pressure  will  be  a  maximum 
when  the  stairs  are  fully  loaded,  and  should  the  wind  braces 
and  other  anchors  fail  to  keep  the  stairs  in  position  under 
these  conditions,  which  may  exist  during  a  fire  panic,  the 
results  would  be  nothing  short  of  a  calamity.  For  these 
reasons  much  attention  must  be  paid  to  all  details  of  the  stair- 
work,  and  especially  to  the  means  used  to  secure  such  stair- 
ways to  the  main  structure  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exclude 
any  remote  possibility  of  a  failure,  when  such  stairs  are  fully 
loaded. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS. 

The  various  main  parts  of  an  iron  stairway  are  as  follows : 

Stair  Stringers.  These  are  perhaps  the  most  prominent 
part  of  the  stairway.  They  are  the  inclined  pieces  or  bars  set 
edgewise  as  a  support  for  the  steps,  and  are  generally  made  of 
a  steel  plate  about  eight  to  ten  inches  wide,  set  on  edge,  and 
reinforced  along  both  edges  by  means  of  i^xi}4  inch  angle 
irons.  In  a  patented  system  the  stair  stringer  and  the  re- 
inforcing angle  irons  are  replaced  by  a  one-piece  stringer, 
having  the  edges  reinforced  by  buckling  same  in  a  rolling 
machine. 


io6  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Stair  stringers  for  exterior  stairways  should  be  not  less 
than  *4  inch  in  thickness.  Stair  stringers  for  interior  stair- 
ways should  be  not  less  than  3/16  inch  in  thickness. 

Bolted  to  the  stringers  are  the  Carriers,  also  called  shelf- 
angles.  The  carriers  carry  the  steps  of  the  stairway.  Carriers 
are  usually  made  of  short  angle  irons  bolted  to  the  stair 
stringers  with  at  least  two  bolts  in  each  angle. 

Steps  usually  consist  of  risers  and  treads.  A  Riser  is  an 
upright  plate  or  board  formin£  the  vertical  face  of  a  step. 

Treads  are  the  horizontal  boards  or  plates  on  which  the 
feet  tread. 

The  Rise  of  a  stair  is  the  vertical  distance  from  the  top 
of  one  step  to  the  top  of  the  next  step.  The  total  rise  is  the 
distance  from  one  finished  floor  to  the  next  finished  floor. 

The  Run  of  a  stair  is  the  horizontal  distance  from  the 
face  of  one  riser  to  the  face  of  the  next  riser.  Treads  are 
generally  about  i^  inches  wider  than  the  run,  on  account  of 
the  Nosing,  or  the  overlaying  projection  of  the  tread  beyond 
the  face  of  the  riser. 

The  Baluster  is  a  fence-like  arrangement  supported  by 
the  stair  stringers  and  preventing  people  from  falling  over 
the  edges  of  the  stairs.  The  baluster  consists  of  a  Hand  Rail 
at  its  upper  part,  and  of  a  number  of  Standards  or  filling-in 
bars,  which  run  vertically  between  the  stringer  and  the  hand- 
rail every  few  inches  apart.  The  standards  may  be  either 
flat,  round  or  square  steel  bars. 

From  distance  to  distance,  and  especially  at  turning 
points,  heavy  square  or  round  Newel  Posts  are  provided  to 
reinforce  the  balusters. 

Winders  are  steps  wider  near  the  outer  edge  and  nar- 
rower near  the  centre  of  the  stairway.  They  are  essential 
elements  in  some  systems  of  spiral  stairways.  Winders  are 
not  allowed  in  public  stairways  in  office  or  loft  buildings. 

Exterior  lines  of  stairways  are  sometimes  continued  to 
the  roof  of  the  building  by  means  of  usual  stringers,  steps  and 
balconies.  In  other  cases,  a  line  of  stairs  may  be  brought 
up  only  to  the  top  floor.  Such  stairways  are  sometimes  con- 
tinued to  the  roof  by  means  of  a  vertical  iron  ladder  fastened 
to  the  wall  and  curved  over  the  parapet  wall  of  the  building. 
From  the  shape  of  their  curved  portions,  such  ladders  are 
known  as  Goose-Neck  Ladders.  In  place  of  iron  steps  these 
ladders  are  provided  about  every  twelve  inches  in  height  with 
a  round  iron  bar  known  as  a  Rung. 

Interior  lines  of  stairways  are  generally  continued  to  the 
roof  by  a  stair  of  the  same  construction  as  the  main  body  of 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  107 


door 
an 


the  stairway,  and  an  enclosure  provided  with  a  full  size  d< 
is  usually  provided  at  the  upper  end  of  the  stairway.  Such 
enclosure  is  referred  to  as  a  Bulkhead. 

Still  in  other  cases  the  main  stairway  stops  at  the  top 
floor,  and  the  communication  to  the  roof  is  made  by  means 
of  a  ladder  running  from  any  point  on  the  top  floor  to  a 
rectangular  opening  in  the  main  roof.  Such  an  opening  is 
usually  provided  with  a  movable  rain-cover  and  is  known 
as  a  Scuttle. 

The  interior  stairways  have  their  stringers  supported  on 
the  brick  walls  or  connected  to  columns  or  to  the  steel  floor 
beams  of  the  main  steel  framing  by  means  of  round  rods  or 
Hangers. 

Exterior  stairways  have  their  stringers  supported  on 
upright  posts  erected  for  the  purpose.  Such  stringers  are 
anchored  to  the  main  building  by  means  of  anchors  bolted  to 
floor  beams  ©r  columns  at  the  various  floors.  Balconies  of 
exterior  stairways  are  sometimes  supported  on  Brackets.  A 
bracket  is  shaped  like  a  right-angled  triangle,  one  short  side  of 
which  is  applied  to  the  wall  vertically  and  is  securely  anchored 
to  the  wall. 

COMMON  DEFECTS.  Following  are  some  of  the 
common  defects  found  in  iron  stairways.  Some  of  these  de- 
fects are  found  in  both  interior  and  exterior  stairs,  others  in 
exterior  stairs  only. 

1.  Unpainted  Iron.     There  is  no  reason  why  unpainted 
iron  work  should  be  erected.     Certain  parts,  like  those  rest- 
ing against  walls,  become  inaccesible  after  erection.    Further- 
more, the  material  used  in  making  the  treads  and  risers  for 
interior  stairs  is  usually  light  steel  plate,  and  this  will  often 
become  seriously  weakened  by  rust  when  exposed  unpainted 
in  the  field.     The  inspector  shall  see  that  all  iron  work,  in- 
cluding newel  posts,  treads  and  platforms  shall  be  painted  one 
coat  of  good  paint  before  erection.     Violations  filed  in  such 
cases   should   not    be   recommended    for   dismissal   until   all 
bolted  connections  have  been  loosened  up  and  all  stringers 
have  been  sufficiently  displaced  to  allow  of  proper  painting. 

2.  Incomplete  Field  Painting.     Exterior  stairways  are 
often  painted  two  coats  after  erection.     In  several  instances 
it  was  found  that  where  stringers  rested  alongside  the  face  of 
a   wall  the  painters  made  no  effort  to  paint  the  surface  of 
the  stringer  facing  the  wall.    This,  however,  can  be  performed 
in   most   cases,   especially   when   a   row   of   windows   happen 
to  open   along  the  stairway,  or  when  the   stringer  is  about 
four  inches  from  the  wall. 


loS  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

3.  Short   Stringers.      In   good   work   a   stringer   resting 
on  a  brick  wall  will  be  provided  with  at  least  six  inches  of 
bearing.     Four  inches   of  bearing  is   common   bad   practice, 
and  in  some  cases  the  stringers  were  made  to  rest  on  a  lump 
of  plaster. 

All  stringers  having  less  than  six  inches  bearing  may  be 
extended  into  the  wall  by  bolting  to  the  stringer  a  steel  plate 
of  the  same  depth  as  the  stringer,  and  by  using  two  or  three 
one-half  inch  bolts  in  such  connection.  A  4x4  angle  or  a 
piece  of  a  channel  properly  bolted  may  be  used  in  place  of 
the  steel  plate. 

4.  Cutting    Stringers.      It   sometimes   happens    that    a 
stringer  is  laid  out  wrong  in  the  shop,  and  when  erected  it 
may  project  too  far  above  the  floor  level  or  opposite  a  door- 
way.    This   projecting  part   is   sometimes   cut   out,   without 
reinforcing  the  remainder  of  the  stringer.    Although  highly 
unsafe,  such  work  is  rather  common. 

5.  Light  Weight.     Stringer  plates,  upright  struts  in  ex- 
terior stairways,  and  very  often  treads,  risers,  platforms  and 
newel  posts  are  found  to  be  light  in  weight.   Stringers  for  ex- 
terior stairways  are  not  allowed  to  be  less  than   %-inch  in 
thickness;  interior  stair  stringers  must  not  be  less  than  3/16- 
inch  thick.     This  difference  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
terior stringers  are  more  exposed  to  corrosion. 

6.  Width  of  Stairs.     Exterior    and    interior    stairways 
should  be  at  least  three  feet  four  inches  wide  in  clear.     In 
some  instances  stairs  three  feet  wide  or  less  have  been  allowed, 
when  such  stairs  are  used  for  private  purposes  and  are  not 
the  public  stairways  of  the  building. 

7.  Winders  are  allowed  only  in  private  stairways. 

8.  Head  Room.    A  head  room  of  about  six  feet  in  clear 
would  be  the  minimum  to  be  used  in  stairways  or  fire  pas- 
sages.    On  account  of  intricate  arrangements  in  some  build- 
ings, the  head  room  in  fire  passages  on  the  first  floor  are 
sometimes  found  to  be  wanting  in  height  and  contrary  to 
the  approved  plans. 

9.  Hangers.     Interior    stair   stringers    are    often    hung 
unto  the  main  floor  beams  by  means  of  flat  or  round  steel 
hangers.     Round  bars  three-quarter  inches  in  diameter  form 
excellent  hangers.     Such  rods  should  be  well  bent  at  their 
upper  end  to  catch  the  flange  of  the  floor  beam. 

Some  hangers  may  be  bent  cold  or  injured  during  bend- 
ing or  heating.  For  this  reason  the  bent  portion  of  each 
hanger  should  be  carefully  examined.  Any  flaw  or  serious 
check  in  the  bend  should  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  109 

Similarly  all  hangers  that  are  too  long  or  too  short,  or 
of  less  diameter  or  thickness  than  required  in  the  approved 
plans,  should  be  either  fixed  or  rejected.  Hangers  that  are 
too  long  may  be  packed  up  with  a  piece  of  pipe  or  with 
washers.  Hangers  that  are  too  short  may  be  elongated  by 
attaching  to  them  a  sleeve.  Short  hangers,  however,  are 
usually  replaced. 

The  following  common  defects  are  mostly  met  with  in 
exterior  stairways : 

10.  Defective   Anchorage.     Anchors   required    to    pass 
through   a   brick   wall   and   to   be  provided   with   a  plate  or 
washer  on  the  inside  face  of  the  wall  are  often  replaced  by 
expansion  bolts  or  by  plain  bolts  driven  a  few  inches  into 
the  wall. 

In  good  work  the  anchors  for  exterior  stairways  are 
made  of  heavy  angle  irons  bolted  in  the  proper  place  to  the 
main  beams  or  columns  by  means  of  two  or  more  %-inch 
bolts  before  any  brick  work  is  placed  around  such  anchors. 

11.  Omitting  Braces.     In  most  stairways  twelve  stories 
and  over,  knee  braces  under  platforms  and  other  extra  braces 
may  be  required.     With  careless  supervision  such  braces  are 
often  omitted.     The  same  applies  to  base  stones  and   steel 
plates  that  may  be  required  to  be  provided  under  each  stair 
upright. 

12.  Defective    Uprights.      All    uprights    in    an    outside 
stairway  are  acting  as  columns.     They  should  therefore  be 
milled  at  both  ends  in  order  to  bear  properly.     Where  this 
is  not  done  the  uprights  will  not  line  up  and  this  may  cause 
undue  bending  for  some  of  the  lower  floor  uprights.     When- 
ever the  uprights  are  out  of  line  and  do  not  bear  at  splices, 
extra  knee  braces  and  stronger  splice  plates  with  more  bolts 
in  them  may  be  found  necessary. 

13.  Defective  Splices.     Six  ^4-inch  bolts  in  each  upright 
end   at  the   splice   will   be  found   sufficient   for   all   purposes 
for  stairs  twelve  to  sixteen  stories  in  height,  when  the  up- 
rights bear  at  the  splice  and  the  stair  is  well  anchored  to 
the  main  structure.     Where  this  is  not  the  case,  additional 
splice  plates  and  extra  bolts  should  be  provided. 

14.  Shaky  Balusters  are  of  common  occurrence.     The 
balusters  may  have  to  stand  much  pushing  in  the  case  of  a 
fire  panic.     To  test  the  rigidity  of  balusters  just  get  hold  of 
the  hand  rail  and  shake  it.    All  balusters  thus  found  to  lack 
rigidity   should   be   stiffened   by   providing  vertical   brackets 
on  the  outside  of  the  stairway,  between  the  hand  rails  and 
the  stringers.  Where  a  stringer^  of  one  stairway  is  close  to  the 


i  io  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

hand-rail  of  another,  the  baluster  may  be  stiffened  by  pro- 
viding a  short  bolted  piece  between  the  stringer  and  the 
hand  rail.  This  is  often  done  in  interior  stairways. 

15.  Uprights  of  unlawful  length  are  often  used  in  the 
lower  part  of  an  iron  stairway.  The  maximum  unsupported 
length  for  uprights  made  of  various  angle  sizes  is  given  in 
table  XVII.  Whenever  an  upright  exceeds  this  length  addi- 
tional knee  braces  or  braces  from  upright  to  upright  should 
be  provided. 

OUTSIDE  FIRE  ESCAPES. 

Buildings  required  to  be  provided  with  fire-escapes  are 
enumerated  in  Section  103  of  the  Building  Code,  as  given 
in  Chapter  XVII.  of  this  book. 

The  Bureau  of  Buildings  has  the  supervision  of  the 
safety  of  construction  of  all  fire  escapes.  Plans  must  be 
filed  with  the  Bureau  of  Buildings  for  all  fire-escapes. 

Fire-escapes  in  tenements  are  also  inspected  by  tenement 
house  inspectors. 

The  Eire  Prevention  Bureau  issues  regulations  for  out- 
side fire  escapes  in  all  buildings  except  tenements,  and  has 
permanent  charge  of  their  inspection  and  maintenance. 

Following  are  the  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  CON- 
STRUCTION OF  OUTSIDE  FIRE-ESCAPES,  as  promul- 
gated by  the  Bureau  of  Fire  Prevention  and  in  effect  since 
December  14,  1911. 

Unless  otherwise  approved  by  the  Fire  Commissioner 
in  writing,  outside  fire-escapes  shall  be  arranged  and  con- 
structed as  follows : 

1.  Location.     Iron  balconies  at  least  four  feet  wide  shall 
be  located  as  directed  by  the  Fire  Commissioner.    They  shall 
communicate   one   with   the   other   by   means   of   stairs    and 
with  the  ground  by  either  stairs  or  drop  ladders  as  may  be 
ordered.     The  balconies  must  be  of  sufficient  length  to  com- 
ply with  all  the  requirements  of  these  regulations. 

2.  Balconies.     The  balconies   shall  have  a   landing  not 
less   than    twenty-four   inches    square    at    the    head    of    each 
stairway.     Except  in   cases  where  the   stairways   reach   and 
leave  the  balconies  at  the  ends,  there  shall  be  a  passageway 
at  the  side  of  the  stairs  not  less  than  fourteen  inches  wide 
in  every  part.     The  stairway  opening  in  each  platform  shall 
be  of  a  size  sufficient  to  provide  clear  headway,  and   shall 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  in 

be  enclosed  on  the  long  side  by  a  three-quarter-inch  rail,  well 
braced. 

3.  Floors   of   Balconies.     The   floors   of  balconies   shall 
be  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  slats  not  less  than  one  and  a  half 
inches   by   three-eighths   of   an    inch,   placed   not   more   than 
one    and    one-quarter    inches    apart,    and    well    secured    and 
riveted    to    iron    battens    one    and    a    half    inches    by   three- 
eighths  of  an  inch,  not  over  three  feet  apart  and  riveted  at 
the  intersection.     The  ends  of  such  floor  slats  shall  project 
beyond  the  platform  frame,  but  shall  not  rest  on  the  bottom 
rail.     The  openings  for  stairways  in  all  balconies  shall  not 
be  less  than  twenty-one  inches  wide  and  thirty-two   inches 
long,  and   such  openings  shall  have  no  covers  of  any  kind. 
The  platforms  or  balconies  shall  be  constructed  and  erected 
to   safely   sustain   in   all   their   parts   a   safe   load   at   a   ratio 
of  four  to  one,  of  not  less  than   eighty  pounds  per  square 
foot  of  surface. 

4.  Railings.      Except   in   the   case   where    stairs   are   at 
ends  of  balconies,  the  outside  top  rail  shall  extend  around 
the  entire  length  of  the  platform  and  shall  go  through  the 
wall  at  each  end  and  be  properly  secured  by  nuts  and  four- 
inch  square  washers  at  least  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick, 
and   no  top  rail  shall  be  connected   at  angles  by  cast  iron. 
Where   stairways   at   ends   of   balconies   make   it   impossible 
to   secure  top   rails  to  walls,   such   top   rails   must  be   made 
rigid     and     secure    by   means   of   inclined     braces    from   the 
brackets  on  the  outside  of  the  railings,  or  other  means  satis- 
factory to  the  Fire  Commissioner,  that  will  offer  no  obstruc- 
tion along  the  balcony.     The  top  rail  of  balconies  shall  be 
one   and   three-quarter   inches   by  one-half   inch   of  wrought 
iron,   or   one   and   a   half   inch   angle    iron   one-quarter   inch 
thick.     The  bottom   rails   shall   be   one   and   one-half  inches 
by  three-eighths  of  an  inch  wrought  iron,  or  one  and  a  half 
inch  angle  iron,  one-quarter  inch  thick,  well  leaded  or  cement- 
ed into  the  wall.    The  ends  of  all  rails  which  go  through  the 
walls  shall  be  worked  out  to  no,  less  than  three-quarter  inch 
bolt  size  for  top  rails,  or  one-half  inch  bolt  size  for  bottom 
rails,  and  if  constructed  as  separate  pieces  shall  be  properly 
secured   to   the   rails   with   not   less   than   two   one-half   inch 
rivets.    The  standards  or  filling-in  bars  shall  be  not  less  than 
one-half  inch  round  or  square  wrought  iron,  well  riveted  to 
the  top  and  bottom  rails  and  platform  frame.    Such  standards 
or  filling-in  bars  shall  be  securely  braced  by  outside  brackets 
at  suitable  intervals,  and  shall  be  placed  not  more  than  six 


ii2  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

inches  from  centers;  the  height  of  railings  shall  in  no  case 
be  less  than  two  feet  nine  inches. 

5.  Stairways.     The    stairways    shall    be    placed    at   an 
angle  of  not  more  than   sixty  degrees,   with   steps  not  less 
than  six  inches  in  width  and  twenty  inches  in  length,  and 
with,  a   rise   of   not   more   than    nine    inches;    and    shall    be 
constructed   and   erected   to  fully   sustain   in   all   their  parts 
a  safe  load  at  a  ratio  of  four  to  one  of  not  less  than  one 
hundred  pounds  per  step,  with  the  exception  of  the  treads, 
which  must  safely  sustain  at  said  ratio  a  load  of  two  hundred 
pounds.     The  treads   shall   be   flat   open   treads,   or  may  be 
constructed   of  flat  bars,   not   over  one  and   one-half  inches 
wide,  riveted  to  angle  irons  of  a  size  not  less  than  one  and 
one-half  inch,  with  the  open  spaces  between  such  bars  not 
over  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide.     The  strings  shall  be 
not  less  than  three-inch  channels  of  iron  or  steel,  or  three- 
eighths  'by  four-inch  bars,  or  two  three-eighths  by  one  and 
one-half  inch  bars  properly  latticed,  or  two  one-quarter  by 
one  and  one-half  inch  angles  properly  latticed,  or  other  shape 
equally  strong.     Unless  of  channel  or  angle  iron,  they  shall 
be   stiffened   by  the   use   of  braces   properly   leaded   into   or 
bolted  through  the  wall,  and  also  bolted  through  the  string 
at  a  height  of  not  less  than   seven  feet  above  the  floor  of 
the   balcony.     They   shall    rest   upon    and    be   bolted    to    a 
bracket,  which  shall  be  fastened  through  the  wall  as  here- 
inafter  provided.     The   strings   shall   be   securely   bolted   to 
a  bracket  at  the   top,   and   the   steps   in   all   cases   shall   be 
double-riveted    or   bolted   to   the   strings.     The    stairs    shall 
have    three-quarter    inch    hand-rails    of    wrought    iron,    well 
braced. 

6.  Brackets.     The  brackets  shall  not  be  less  than  one- 
half   inch    by    one    and    three-quarter    inches    wrought    iron, 
placed  edgewise,  or  one  and  three-quarter  inch  angle  iron, 
one-quarter  inch  thick,  well  braced ;  they  shall  not  be  more 
than  four  feet  apart,  and  shall  be  braced  by  means  of  not 
less   than   three-quarters   of   an    inch    square   wrought    iron, 
and  shall  extend  two-thirds  of  the  width  of  the  respective 
balconies  or  brackets.     The  brackets   shall   go  through   the 
wall  and  be  turned  down  three  inches,  or  be  properly  secured 
by  nuts  and  four-inch  square  washers  at  least  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  thick.     On  new  buildings  the  brackets  shall  be 
set  as  the  walls   are  being  built.     When   brackets   are  put 
on   buildings    already    erected    the   part    going   through    the 
wall  shall  not  be  less  than  one  inch  in  diameter,  with  screw 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  113 

nuts  and  washers  not  less  than  five  inches  square  and  one- 
half  inch  thick.  If  the  end  going  through  the  wall  is  sep- 
arately constructed,  it  shall  be  properly  connected  to  the 
bracket  with  not  less  than  two  five-eighths  inch  rivets  stag- 
gered. 

7.  Drop   Ladders.     Where   drop   ladders   are   permitted 
instead  of  stairs  from  the  lowest  balcony,  they  shall  be  of 
sufficient  length  to  reach  from  the  lowest  balcony  or  plat- 
form to  a  safe  landing  place  beneath.     It  shall  be  not  less 
than  fifteen  inches  in  width,  with  strings  not  less  than  one- 
half  inch   by  two   inches   and   rungs   of   not   less   than   five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  placed  not  over  twelve  inches 
apart  and  properly  riveted  through  the  strings.     Where  the 
lowest  balcony  is  more  than  fourteen  feet  above  the  ground 
beneath  the  same,  a  suitable  landing  platform  shall  be  pro- 
vided.    Such   platform   shall   be   located   not  more  than  ten 
feet  above  the  ground,  and  shall  be  connected  with  the  fire- 
escapes  above  by  a  stairway  constructed  as  herein  required. 
Such  platform  shall  be  not  less  than  four  feet  in  length  by 
three  feet  in  width,  and  shall  be  provided  at  each  end  with 
proper  railings  and  a  drop  ladder  to  reach  the  ground.     Ex- 
cept as  specified,  it  shall  be  constructed  in  conformity  with 
the  other  provisions  of  these  regulations. 

8.  Goose-Neck  Ladders.    Wherever  possible,  a  balcony 
at  the  top  story  of  any  building  shall  be  provided  with  a 
goose-neck  ladder  leading  to  the  roof.     Such  goose-neck  lad- 
der shall  be  securely  fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  building  and 
to  the  roof,  and  shall  be  so  located  as  to  afford  safe  access 
to  the  roof.     Such  ladder  shall  be  constructed  as  provided 
for  drop  ladders;  the  strings  shall  be  in  one  piece  and  shall 
not  be  connected  in  parts  by  rivets  and  bolts;  such  ladders 
shall  be  arranged  to  rest  on  brackets  and  not  on  slats  form- 
ing the  floor  of  the  balcony. 

9.  Scuttle    Ladders.     Scuttle    ladders,    where    required, 
shall  be  constructed  as  above  provided  for  stairs,  except  that 
they  may  be  set  at  a  steeper  angle.    They  must  be  properly 
secured  at  top  and  bottom. 

10.  Painting.     All  the  parts  of  such   fire-escapes  shall 
receive  not  less  than  two  coats  of  paint,  one  in  the  shop 
and  one  after  erection.   All  fire-escape  balconies  shall  contain 
a  plate  firmly  fastened   to  the   standards  or   filling-in  bars 
near  the  top  railing,  containing  in  plain,   large,  prominent, 
raised   letters,   each   letter  to  be   not  less  than   one-half  an 
inch  in  length,  the  following  words:     "Any  one  placing  any 
encumbrance  on  this  balcony  will  be  fined  ten  dollars."    The 


ii4  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

lettering  on  such  plates  shall  be  painted  with  a  paint  of  a 
color  different  from  that  used  on  the  body  of  the  plate,  so 
that  the  letters  will  be  prominent  and  distinct. 

11.  In  case  it  may  be  desired,  for  architectural  or  other 
reasons,   to   vary   from   these   requirements   in   the   shape   of 
construction  of  the  brackets  or  railings,  such  changes  may 
be   submitted   to   the   Fire   Commissioner,   but   shall   not   be 
made  until  his  approval  has  been  obtained. 

12.  Windows.     All    windows    opening   on    fire    escapes 
to  be  approved  self-closing,  and  to  have  metal  frames  and 
sashes  glazed  with  wire  glass. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
Roofs  Tanks  and  Tank  Supports 

Uses  of  Roof  Tanks.  In  all  tall  buildings  water  is  re- 
quired for  house  use,  for  fire  extinguishing,  and  sometimes 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  All  this  water  is  generally 
pumped  into  one  or  more  roof  tanks,  whence  it  descends 
through  pipes  in  the  various  parts  of  the  building. 

Three  kinds  of  tanks  are  generally  used : 

1.  House   Tanks.     These    supply   water    for    drinking, 
wash  bas'ins,  water  closets,  boilers,  as  well  as  for  cleaning 
purposes.    House  tanks  are  usually  made  of  wood.   All  house 
tanks    containing    over    five    hundred    gallons    must    rest    on 
steel  beams.     In  smaller  buildings  the  house  tank  also  sup- 
plies all  water  for  fire  extinguishing  purposes. 

The  Fire  Underwriters  reduce  the  fire  insurance  rate  on 
those  buildings  equipped  with  special  water  tanks  and  with 
a  system  of  fire  extinguishing  pipes,  forming  what  is  known 
as  a  sprinkler  system.  The  sprinkler  system  is  now  com- 
pulsory, being  required  by  law  in  all  buildings  of  a  certain 
height  and  with  a  certain  number  of  people  working  above 
the  second  floor.  The  tanks  used  for  the  sprinkler  system 
are  known  as  gravity  and  pressure  tanks. 

2.  Gravity  tanks  are  made  of  wood,  just  like  the  house 
tanks,   but   are   set   upon   a   steel   framing  at   a   considerable 
height    above    the    main    roof,    usually    between    fifteen    and 
thirty-five  feet.     This  height  creates  a  certain  required  pres- 
sure in  the  sprinkler  pipes. 

3.  Pressure  tanks  are  used  in  addition  with  all  sprinkler 
systems.      These    are    iron    tanks    filled    up    two-thirds    with 
water  maintained  under  a  constant  pressure  of  about  seventy- 
five  pounds  per  square  inch  or  more,  by  means  of  an  air  com- 
pressor.     Pressure   tanks   rest   on   steel   beams   only   two   to 
three  feet  above  the  main  roof  and  are  enclosed  in  heated 
pent  houses  to  prevent  freezing. 

In  a  twelve-story  building  on  a  lot  50x100  feet  there 
were  two  pressure  tanks,  each  containing  6600  gallons  when 
filled  up  two-thirds.  Then  there  was  a  io,ooo-gallon  gravity 
tank  and  a  6ooo-gallon  house  tank.  As  in  all  sprinkler  sys- 
tems, the  house  tank  was  connected  with  the  sprinkler  pipes 
and  its  contents  could  be  used  in  case  of  fire  if  necessary. 


n6  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

LOCATION.  No  tank  should  be  placed  over  a  stair 
well,  as  it  may  interfere  with  the  work  of  firemen  in  case  of 
fire.  It  is  a  convenient  arrangement  in  tall  buildings  to 
have  the  pressure  tanks  about  two  or  three  feet  above  the 
main  roof  and  enclosed  in  a  fireproof  pent  house,  while  on 
top  of  this  pent  house,  both  the  house  tank  and  the  gravity 
tank  may  be  placed. 

Following  are  a  few  points  requiring  careful  considera- 
tion in  tank  work : 

1.  Elevation   of   Beams.     Changes    in   the    elevation    of 
the  tank-supporting  beams,  contrary  to  approved  plans,  are 
of  common  occurrence.     This  is  sometimes  done  by  causing 
each   steel  beam   under  the  tank  to  be   raised   upon   struts 
or  posts  which  may  not  be  sufficiently  braced  in  between  to 
insure  rigidity. 

2.  Size  of  Beams.     Changes  in  the  size  of  beams  sup- 
porting the  tanks  are  also  a  common  and   risky  operation. 
This  is  sometimes  done  by  mistake,  and  where  lighter  sizes 
are  used  there  should  be  no  excuse  for  such  an  error. 

3.  Capacity   of   Tanks.     This    is    often    varied    without 
modifying   the    sizes    of   the    steel   beams    accordingly.      To 
avoid  unsafe  conditions  which  may  arise  in  this  manner,  a 
convenient  table  is  given  in  Part  Three  for  the  capacity  of 
cylindrical  tanks  of  usual  diameters.     The  capacity  of  square 
or  other  tanks  may  be  easily  figured  into  cubic  feet. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  is  about  62.5  pounds 
and  one  cubic  foot  contains  7.48  gallons. 

4.  Bolting.     In    all   tank   towers   bolting   must    receive 
special    consideration.      The    various    members    and     gusset 
plates  will  seldom  match,  and  reaming  holes  into  elongated 
slots  or  drilling  new  holes  in  between  old  ones  is  very  usual. 
This  may   often   render   a   gusset   plate   useless,   unless   the 
same  is  reinforced.     Where  holes  have  been  elongated  more 
than  the  diameter  of  the  bolt  shank  and  where  any  part  of 
the  hole  is  visible  after  the  bolt  is  in  place,  washers  should 
be  used  to  cover  up  such  holes,  in  order  to  keep  away  rain 
water  and   also  to  hold  the  parts   rigidly  together  through 
friction. 

Connections  near  the  top  of  the  framing  are  likely  to 
contain  bolts  of  smaller  diameter  than  required.  Very  often 
five-eighth  inch  bolts  are  used  instead  of  three-quarter  inch 
bolts  where  holes  did  not  match.  This  is  partly  due  to  the 
difficulty  of  operating  a  reamer  or  a  drill  high  up  in  the  air. 
It  is,  however,  bad  practice  and  should  not  be  allowed. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  117 

5.  Wind  Bracing.     All  exposed  roof  tanks  are  regular 
targets  for  swift  winds  and  storms.     It  is  therefore  essential 
to  secure  rigidity  in  all  tank  towers.     This  is  done  partly  by 
having  plenty  of  tight  bolts  in  all  gusset  plate  connections 
and  partly  by  using  sway  or  X  braces  and  tie  rods.     All  X 
braces    should    be   bolted    at    the   middle    where   they    cross 
each  other,  and  should  be  well  connected  at  each  end.    All 
tie  rods  used  in  between  steel  beams  should  be  made  tight, 
and  where  the  beams  are  not  too  far,  double  nuts  may  be 
used  at  each  end  of  each  tie  rod,  to  make  the  ties  to  act  both 
in  tension  and  compression. 

6.  Anchorage.  This  part  of  the  tank  tower  takes  the  full 
effect    of   wind    pressure    and    must    be    carefully    inspected. 
Whenever   anchors   must   go  through   brick   or   other  walls, 
the  inspector  should  see  that  this  is  properly  done. 

7.  Saddles.     Pressure  tanks  are  generally  cylindrical  in 
ir'hape  and  rest  upon  cast  iron  or  steel  saddles.     These  sad- 
dles keep  the  tank  from  rolling  and  should  be  bolted  to  the 
iron  beams. 

Where  the  tank  supporting  beams  are  not  set  exactly 
level  on  top,  each  beam  should  be  made  to  get  its  share  of 
the  tank  load  by  providing  tight  wedges  or  shims  between 
the  tank  and  the  beam.  Whenever  possible  this  should  be 
done  before  the  tank  is  filled  up  with  water. 


Erection  and  Inspection  of  Iron 
and  Steel  Constructions 


PART     II 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Permit  To  Build 

How  to  Obtain  a  Permit.  It  is  unlawful  to  start  building- 
work  without  a  permit.  Anybody  can  obtain  a  permit  by  ap- 
plying in  writing  to  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  for  the 
respective,  borough.  Permits  are  issued  upon  printed  blank 
forms  furnished  free  of  charge  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 

An  affidavit  signed  by  the  owner  must  be  filed  with  each 
application  for  a  permit.  This  affidavit  must  state  that  the 
owner  gives  to  the  architect  or  builder  the  full  right  to  erect 
upon  the  owner's  lot  a  certain  building  described  in  the  appli- 
cation, or  to  alter  the  owner's  building  in  certain  ways. 

Plans  in  triplicate  are  also  required  as  per  Section  4  of  the 
Building  Code. 

Specifications.  Complete  architect's  specifications  are  not 
filed  with  the  plans,  with  exception  of  the  main  points  relating 
to  the  work,  which  are  to  be  indicated  as  answers  to  a  list  of 
about  fifty  questions  printed  in  the  application  blank.  The 
architect  may  specify  on  the  plans  in  the  form  of  notes  any  im- 
portant details  that  must  be  carried  out. 

For  instance  in  steel  framing  plans,  notes  are  often  put  on 
each  plan  giving  the  size  of  bolts  or  rivets  to  be  used,  the 
number  of  coats  of  paint,  the  size  of  tie  rods,  and  so  on.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  inspector  to  see  that  all  the  specifications  con- 
tained in  the  permit  to  build  or  given  on  the  plans  as  notes, 
are  complied  with  on  the  job.  In  addition  all  work  must  com- 
ply with  the  Building  Code,  which  is  to  be  considered  as  being 
above  all  architect's  specifications,  whenever  such  specifica- 
tions do  not  result  in  securing  workmanship  and  safety  of  a 
higher  degree  than  that  required  by  the  Code. 

Kinds  of  Permits.  Three  kinds  of  permits  are  issued  by 
the  Bureau  of  Buildings  for  construction  work : 

1.  New  Building  permits,  marked  N.  B. 

2.  Alteration  permits,  marked  Alt. 

3.  Slip  applications,  marked  S.  A. 

The  last  group  includes  all  permits  for  minor  repairs,  like 
pushing  a  store  front  within  building  line,  erecting  hand  rails, 
small  marquises  and  small  signs,  and  making  changes  which 
do  not  affect  the  main  structural  framing  of  a  building. 


122  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Printed  forms  for  each  kind  of  permit  are  furnished  free 
of  charge  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 

A  permit  is  good  for  one  year,  after  which  time  it  expires 
automatically  by  limitation. 

Approval  of  Plans.  In  the  case  of  any  plan  filed  for  ap- 
proval the  Bureau  of  Buildings  will  usually  take  an  action 
within  five  days.  If  the  plans  are  found  entirely  satisfactory 
and  in  compliance  with  the  law,  a  permit  may  be  issued  within 
the  above  time.  This  is  often  the  case  with  simple  alteration 
permits.  With  complex  plans  for  large  jobs,  the  plan  examiner 
will  make  a  list  of  all  defects  of  construction,  weak  parts,  un- 
lawful construction,  and  so  on.  He  will  also  ask  for  any  furth- 
er information  or  sketches  he  may  find  necessary  to  make 
points  in  the  plans  or  application  more  definite.  A  letter  is 
sent  to  the  architect  containing  all  these  objections.  The  archi- 
tect will  then  revise  his  drawings  and  submit  an  answer  con- 
taining the  verification  of  the  changes  or  amendments  to  be 
made  in  the  original  plans.  If  these  changes  are  satisfactory 
to  the  plan  examiner,  he  recommends  the  case  to  the  Superin- 
tendent for  signature  of  approval.  Then  the  architect  is  noti- 
fied and  the  work  may  be  started. 

Following  is  a  complete  copy  of  a  permit  to  build  with 
questions  and  answers  for  a  new  building: 

Office  of  the  Borough  President  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan 
in  the  City  of  New  York. 

THE  BUREAU  OF  BUILDINGS  FOR  THE  BOROUGH 
OF  MANHATTAN. 

Office :     No.   220   Fourth   Avenue. 
S.  W.  Corner  i8th  St.  and  Fourth  Ave. 

Plan  No.  208  of  1913.  New  Building.  Received  May  2oth,  1913. 

(Stamped) 

APPLICATION   FOR  ERECTION   OF   BRICK   BUILD- 
INGS. 

Application  is  hereby  made  to  the  Superintendent  of 
Buildings  of  the-  City  of  New  York,  for  the  Borough  of  Man- 
hattan, for  the  approval  of  the  detailed  statement  of  the  speci- 
fications and  plans  herewith  submitted,  for  the  erection  of  the 
building  herein  described.  All  provisions  of  the  law  shall  be 
complied  with  in  the  erection  of  said  building  whether  specified 
herein  or  not. 

(Sign  here)  Signature  of  Architect. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  123 

The  City  of  New  York. 
Borough  of  Manhattan,  May  2Oth,  1913. 

1.  State  how  many  buildings  to  be  erected? — One. 

2.  What  is  the  exact  location  thereof?  (State  on  what 
street  or  avenue,  the  side  thereof,  the  number  of  feet  from  the 
nearest  street  or  avenue,  and  the  name  thereof) — About  200 
ft.  W.  of  the  N.  W.  corner  6th  Ave.  and  W.  38th  St.,  and 
known  as  Nos.  25-27  W.  38th  St. 

3.  Will  the  building  be  erected  on  the  front  or  rear  of  the 
lot  ?— Front. 

4.  How  to  be  occupied  ? — Offices  and  stores.  If  for  dwell- 
ing,  state   the   number   of   families   in   each   house — Not   for 
dwelling. 

5.  Size  of  the  lot? — 118  feet  front;  93  feet  3  inches  rear; 
98  ft.  2  in.  irregular  deep. 

Give  diagram  of  same. — See  plans  on  file. 

6.  Size  of  building  ? — 1 18  feet  front ;  93  feet  3  inches  rear ; 
88  ft.  2  in.  irregular  deep. 

Size  of  extension?-— 90  ft.  front;  90  ft.  rear;  10  ft.  deep. 

Number  of  stories  in  height :  Main  building? — 12.  Exten- 
sion ? — One. 

Height  from  curb  level  to  the  highest  point :  Main  build- 
ing?—  148  ft.  10  in.  Extension? — 18  ft.  6  in. 

7.  What  is  the  character  of  the  ground  :  Rock,  clay,  sand, 
etc.  ? — Rock. 

8.  Will  the  foundation  be  laid  on  earth,  rock,  timber  or 
piles? — On  rock. 

9.  Will  there  be  a  cellar? — Yes. 

10.  What  will  be  the  base,  stone  or  concrete? — Rock. 
If  base  stones,  give  size  and  thickness,  and  how  laid.    If  con- 
crete, give  thickness. 

n.  Wrhat  will  be  the  depth  of  foundation  walls  below 
curb  level  or  surface  of  ground? — 24  ft.  8  in. 

12.  Of  what  will  foundation  walls  be  built?  Brick. 

13.  Give  thickness  of  foundation  walls; — front  16  and  24 
inches;  sides  16  and  24  inches;  rear  16  and  24  inches;  party  24 
inches. 

14.  \Vill  interior  supports  be  brick  partition    walls    or 
piers,  iron  columns  or  wooden  posts? — Steel  columns. 

Give  size  of  same. — See  steel  plans. 

15.  If  piers,  give  thickness  of  cap  stones  or  plates 

bond  stones  or  plates 

16.     Give  base  course,  width  and  thickness 


124  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

17.  Will  any  part  of  front,  side  or  rear  wall,  be  supported 
on  piers  in  cellar? — No. 

Give  size:  Front size  of  base  course 

Rear   "  

Side    

Size  of  cap  stones size  of  bond  stones 

18.  Of  what  materials  will  the  upper    walls    be    con- 
structed ? — Brick. 

What  will  be  the  thickness  of  upper  walls,  exclusive  of 
ashlar,  if  any? 

Basement ;  front inches ;  rear  24  inches ;  side  24  inches ; 

party  24  inches. 

ist  Story;  front  20  inches;  rear  24  inches;  side  20  inches; 
party  24  inches. 

2nd  Story ;  front  20  inches ;  rear  20  inches ;  side  20  inches ; 
party  20  inches. 

3rd  Story;  front  16  inches;  rear  16  inches;  side  16  inches; 
party  16  inches. 

4th  Story;  front  16  inches;  rear  16  inches;  side  16  inches; 
party  16  inches. 

5th  Story;  front  16  inches;  rear  16  inches;  side  16  inches; 
party  16  inches. 

6th  Story;  front  16  inches;  rear  16  inches;  side  16  inches; 
party  16  inches. 

7th  Story;  front  16  inch;  rear  16  inches;  side  16  inches; 
party  16  inches. 

Thence  12  inches  to  top  for  all  walls. 

19.  What  will  be  the  material    for    the    front? — Brick, 
stone  and  terra  cotta. 

If  of  stone,  what  kind? — Limestone.  If  ashlar,  give  thick- 
ness?— 4  in.  and  8  in. 

20.  Will  flues  be  lined  with  pipe  or  have  8  in.  of  brick 
around  the  same? — 12  in.  of  brick. 

21.  Will  any  wall  be  supported  on  iron  or  steel  girders? 
— Yes.    See  steel  plans. 

Front,  material  ...  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness, 
Side,  material  ...  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness. 
Rear,  material  ...  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness. 
Interior,  material.  ..  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness. 
Will  any  wall  be  supported  on  iron  or  steel  columns? — 
Yes.  See  steel  plans. 

Front,  material  ...  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness, 
Side,  material  ...  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness. 
Rear,  material  ...  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness. 
Interior,  material.  ..  .size.  ..  .weight  or  thickness. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  125 

22.  Give   material   of   girders? — Steel.      Of   columns? — 
Steel. 

Under  ist  tier,  size  of  girders. — See  steel  plans.  Size  of 
columns. — See  steel  plans. 

Under  2nd  tier,  size  of  girders. — See  steel  plans.  Size  of 
columns. — See  steel  plans. 

Under  3rd  tier,  size  of  girders. — See  steel  plans.  Size  of 
columns. — See  steel  plans. 

Under  4th  tier,  size  of  girders. — See  steel  plans.  Size  of 
columns. — See  steel  plans. 

Under  5th  tier,  size  of  girders. — See  steel  plans.  Size  of 
columns. — See  steel  plans. 

Under  roof  tier,  size  of  girders. — See  steel  plans.  Size  of 
columns. — See  steel  plans. 

23.  Give  material,  size  and*  distance  on  centers  of  floor 
beams. — See  steel  plans. 

First  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Second  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Third  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Fourth  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Fifth  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Sixth  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Seventh  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Eighth  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Roof  tier,  material ;  size ;  distance  on  cen- 
tres  

Give  thickness  of  headers of  trimmers 

24.  Specify  construction  of  floor  filling. — Concrete  arch. 

25.  Is  the  building  to  be  fireproof? — Yes. 

26.  Of   what  material   will   partitions   be   built? — Cross 
partitions  of  3  in.  plaster  block;  fore  and  aft  of  3  in.  plaster 
block. 

27.  Give  material  of  skylights. — Galvanized  iron ;  size — 
see  plans. 

28.  What  will  be  the  material  of  roofing? — Slag. 
Will  roof  be  flat,  peak  or  mansard? — Flat. 


126  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

29.  What  will  be  the  material  of  dumb  waiter  shafts?— 
6  in.  terra  cotta. 

30.  What  will  be  the  material  of  elevator  shafts? — Metal 
and  masonry. 

31.  What  will  be  the  material  of  cornices? — Metal  and 
masonry. 

32.  What  will  be  the  material  of  bay  windows? — Metal 
and  masonry. 

33.  What  kind  of  fire  escape  will  be  provided? — Outside 
iron  stairs. 

34.  Will    cellar    be    plastered? — Yes.      How? — On    fire- 
proof arches. 

35.  Will   access  to   roof  be   by   scuttle   or   bulkhead? — 
Bulkhead.    If  by  bulkhead  how  constructed? — Angle  iron  and 
terra-cotta  blocks. 

36.  With  what  material  will  walls  be  coped? — Vitrified 
tile. 

37.  How  will  building  be  heated? — By  steam. 

38.  Is  there  any  other  building  erected  on  lot  or  permit 
granted  for  one  ? 

Size ;    height ;    feet.      How    occupied? 

Give  distance  between  same  and  proposed  building 

feet. 

39.  Are  any  buildings  to  be  taken  down? — Yes.     How 
many  ? — Four. 

If  the  building  is  to  be  occupied  as  a  Flat,  Apartment, 
Tenement  or  Lodging  house,  give  the  following  particulars : 

40.  Is  any  part  of  building  to  be  used  as  a  store  or  for 
any  other  business  purposes?    If  so,  state  for  what 

41.  How  many  families  will  occupy  each? 

Cellar 

Basement    

ist  floor     

2nd  floor  

3rd  floor     

4th  floor   

5th  floor   

6th  floor 

7th  floor   

42.  Height  of  ceilings?.  ..... 

43.  How  basement  to  be  occupied? How  made 

water-tight? 

44.  How  will  cellar  stairs  be  enclosed?.  ... 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  127 

45.  How  is  cellar  to  be  occupied? How  made  wa- 
ter-tight?  

46.  Will  shafts  be  open  or  covered  with  louvre  skylights 
full  size  of  shafts? Size  of  each  shaft? 

47.  Dimensions  of  water  closet  windows? Dimen- 

isons  of  windows  for  living  rooms? 

48.  Of  what  materials  will  hall  partitions  be  construct- 
ed?  

49.  Of  what  materials  will  hall  floors  be  constructed?.  . .  . 

50.  How  will  hall  ceilings  and  soffits  of  stairs  be  plas- 
etred ? Halls  on  fireproof  arches;   stairs  unplastered. 

51.  Of  what  material  will  stairways  be  constructed? — 
Iron.    Give  sizes  of  stair  well  holes? — 4  inches. 

52.  If  any  other  building  on  lot,  give  size  :    Front ; 

rear ;    deep ;    stories    high ;    how   occupied 

;  on  front  or  rear  of  lot ;  material 

How  much  space  between  it  and  proposed  building? 

53.  How  will  floors  and   sides  of  water  closets  to  the 
height  of  16  in.  be  made  waterproof? — 6  in.  marble. 

54.  Number  and  location  of  water  closets  :    Cellar ; 

ist  floor ;  2nd   floor ;  3rd   floor ;  4th   floor 

;  5th  floor ;  6th  floor ;  7th  floor 

55.  This  building  will  safely  sustain  per  superficial  foot 
upon  the  ist  floor  150  Ibs. ;  upon  2nd  floor  75  Ibs. ;  upon  3rd 
floor  75  Ibs. ;  upon  4th  floor  75  Ibs. ;  upon  5th  floor  75  Ibs. ;  upon 
6th  floor  75  Ibs;  upon  7th  floor  75  Ibs;  upon  8th  to  I2th  floors 
75  Ibs. ;  upon  roof  50  Ibs. 

56.  What  is  the  estimated  cost  of  each  building,  exclusive 
of  lot  ? — $400.000. 

57.  What  is  the  estimated  cost  of  all  the  buildings,  ex- 
clusive of  lot? — $400,000. 

58.  Is  architect  to  supervise  the  erection  of  building  or 
buildings  mentioned  herein? — Yes. 

Name — 'Architect. 
Address 

59.  If  not  architect,  who  is  to  superintend  the  erection  of 
the  building  described  herein?     Name Address 

Owner Address. 

Architect Address 

Mason Address 

Carpenter Address 

If  a  wall,  or  part  of  a  wall  already  built  is  to  be  used,  fill 
up  the  following : 


128  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 
Borough  of  Manhattan,  May  nth,  1913. 

The  undersigned  gives  notice  that  he  intends  to  use  the 
North  and  part  of  the  West  wall  of  building  Nos.  26-28  West 
39th  St.,  as  party  wall  in  the  erection  of  the  building  hereinbe- 
fore described,  and  respectfully  requests  that  the  same  be  ex- 
amined and  a  permit  granted  therefor.  The  foundation  walls 
are  built  of  brick  20  in.  thick,  10  feet  below  curb ;  the  upper 
walls  are  built  of  brick  16  in.  thick,  90  and  50  feet  deep,  55  feet 
in  height. 

(Sign  here) Architect. 

District  Inspector's  Report  Upon  Application. 

The  Bureau  of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan. 
The  City  of  New  York. 

Borough  of  Manhattan I9I3- 

TO  THE  SUPERINTENDENT    OF    BUILDINGS    FOR 
THE  BOROUGH  OF  MANHATTAN. 

I  respectfully  report  that  I  have  thoroughly  examined  and 
measured  the  walls,  named  in  the  foregoing  application,  and 
found  the  foundation  wall  of  brick  to  be  built  20  inches  thick, 
10  feet  below  curb,  the  upper  wall  of  brick  built  16  inches  thick, 
80  and  40  feet  deep,  50  feet  in  height,  and  that  the  mortar  in 
said  wall  is  cement,  hard  and  good.  The  North  and  West 
walls  are  built  as  party  walls,  and  are  in  a  good  and  safe  con- 
dition to  be  used  as  proposed. 

What  is  the  nature  of  the  ground? — Rock. 

What  kind  of  sand  was  used  in  the  mortar? 

(The  inspector  must  here  state  what  defects,  if  any,  are  in 
the  walls). 

(The  inspector  must  state  the  thickness  of  walls  in  each 
and  every  story). 

(Sign  here)       Inspector. 

Final  approval. 

THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 
Borough  of  Manhattan. 

5/26/1913. 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  within  detailed  statement  of 
specifications,  and  a  copy  of  the  plans  relating  thereto,  have 
been  submitted  to  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  for  the 
Borough  of  Manhattan,  and  are  hereby  as  amended  approved. 

(Signature) 
Superintendent  of  Buildings. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Extract  From  the  Building  Code  of  the  City  of 
New  York. 

The  following  articles  from  the  Building  Code  are  of  spe- 
cial interest  for  Iron  Contractors.  Much  trouble,  defective 
work  and  expense  may  be  saved  by  a  careful  and  intelligent 
reading  of  these  extracts.  It  is  the  author's  candid  opinion 
that  nearly  one  third  of  the  violations  filed  against  iron  work, 
are  due  to  complete  ignorance  of  even  long  time,  experienced 
contractors,  of  the  essential  requirements  of  the  code. 

To  illustrate  this  consider  i.  e.  Sec.  117,  relating  to  separa- 
tors in  double  beams  or  beams  used  in  pairs.  Nothing  can  be 
plainer  than  a  statement  like  this :  "When  rolled  steel  or 
wrought  iron  beams  are  used  in  pairs  to  form  a  girder,  they 
shall  be  connected  together  by  bolts  and  iron  separators  at  in- 
tervals of  not  more  than  five  feet." 

It  is  a  simple  matter  to  punch  the  webs  of  such  beams  in 
the  shop  for  separator  bolts,  not  further  than  five  feet  on  cen- 
ters. Instead  of  doing  this,  many  iron  workers  in  ignorance 
of  the  above  section  of  the  law,  will  punch  separator  holes 
over  five  feet  on  centres  and  then  erect  their  beams  without 
thinking  of  violating  the  code.  When  a  violation  notice  is 
served,  they  have  to  drill  additional  holes  in  the  field,  on 
scaffolds  and  under  time-wasting  conditions. 

There  is  no  better  investment  of  spare  time  for  builders, 
architects  ana  mechanics,  than  to  carefully  read  and  under- 
stand the  building  code,  especially  the  parts  relating  to  the 
work  going  on  under  their  supervision. 

At  the  end  of  this  chapter  there  is  a  quick  reference  table, 
which  will  be  useful  to  the  readers  in  locating  the  sections  re- 
lating to  various  parts  of  their  work.  The  numbers  of  all  sec- 
tions here  given  are  the  same  as  in  the  official  code. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  BUILDING  CODE. 
Short  Title  of  This  Ordinance.     A  Remedial  Ordinance. 

THIS  ORDINANCE  TO  BE  KNOWN  AND  CITED 
AS  THE  BUILDING  CODE,  AND  PRESUMPTIVELY 
CONTAINS  THE  BUILDING  LAW,  EXCEPT  SO  FAR 
AS  SUCH  PROVISIONS  ARE  CONTAINED  IN  THE 
CHARTER. 


130  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Section  i.  The  following  provisions  shall  constitute  and 
be  known  as  The  Building  Code  and  may  be  cited  as  such,  and 
presumptively  provides  for  all  matters  concerning,  affecting 
or  relating  to  the  construction,  alteration  or  removal  of  build- 
ings or  structures  erected  or  to  be  erected  in  the  City  of  New 
York,  as  constituted  by  the  "Greater  New  York  Charter,"  ex- 
cept so  far  as  such  provisions  are  contained  in  said  charter. 

Building  Code  to  Be  Construed  Liberally. 

Sec.  2.  This  ordinance  is  hereby  declared  to  be  remedial, 
and  is  to  be  construed  liberally,  to  secure  the  beneficial  inter- 
ests and  purposes  thereof. 

Filing  Plans  and  Statements. 

Sec.  4.  Before  the  erection,  construction  or  alteration  of 
any  building  or  part  of  any  building,  structure,  or  .part  of  any 
structure,  or  wall,  or  any  platform,  staging  or  flooring  to  be 
used  for  standing  or  seating  purposes,  and  before  the  construc- 
tion or  alteration  of  the  plumbing  or  drainage  of  any  building, 
structure  or  premises  is  commenced,  the  owner  or  lessee,  or 
agent  of  either,  or  the  architect  or  builder,  employed  by  such 
owner  or  lessee  in  connection  with  the  proposed  erection  or 
altration,  shall  submit  to  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  for 
the  borough  in  which  the  premises  are  situated  a  detailed 
statement  in  triplicate  of  the  specifications,  on  appropriate 
blanks  to  be  furnished  to  applicants  by  the  Department  of 
Buildings,  and  a  full  and  complete  copy  of  the  plans  of  such 
proposed  work  as  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  juris- 
diction may  require,  all  of  which  shall  be  accompanied  with  a 
statement  in  writing,  sworn  to  before  a  notary  public  or  com- 
missioner of  deeds,  giving  the  full  name  and  residence,  street 
and  number,  of  the  owner,  or  of  each  of  the  owners  of  said 
building,  or  proposed  building,  structure  or  proposed  struc- 
ture, premises,  wall,  platform,  staging  or  flooring.  Said 
sworn  statement,  and  detailed  statement  of  specifications,  and 
copy  of  the  plans  shall  be  kept  on  file  in  the  office  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Buildings  for  the  borough  where  the 
premises  to  which  they  relate  are  situated,  and  the  erec- 
tion, construction,  or  alteration  of  said  building,  structure, 
wrall,  platform,  staging  or  flooring,  or  any  part  thereof,  and 
the  construction  or  alteration  of  the  said  plumbing  or  drain- 
age, shall  not  be  commenced  or  proceeded  with,  until  said 
statements  and  plans  shall  have  been  so  filed,  and  approved 
by  the  said  Commissioner  of  Buildings,  and  the  erection,  con- 
struction or  alteration  of  such  building,  structure,  platform, 
staging  or  flooring,  and  the  construction  or  alteration  of 
such  plumbing  or  drainage  when  proceeded  with  shall 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  131 

be  constructed  in  accordance  with  such  approved  de- 
tailed statement  of  specifications  and  copy  of  plans. 
Any  approval  which  may  be  issued  by  a  Commis- 
sioner of  Buildings  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  this  section, 
but  under  which  no  wrork  is  commenced  within  one  year  from 
the  time  of  issuance,  shall  expire  by  limitation.  Ordinary  re- 
pairs of  buildings  or  structures,  or  of  the  plumbinb  or  drainage 
thereof,  may  be  made  without  notice  to  the  Department  of 
Buildings,  but  such  repairs  shall  not  be  construed  to  include 
the  cutting  away  of  any  stone  or  brick  wall,  or  any  portion 
thereof,  the  removal  or  cutting  of  any  beams  or  supports,  or 
the  removal,  change  or  closing  of  any  staircase,  or  the  altera- 
tion of  any  house  sewer  or  private  sewer  or  drainage  system, 
or  the  construction  of  any  soil  or  waste  pipe. 

The  foregoing  provisions  and  all  the  provisions  of  this 
Code  shall  apply  with  equal  force  to  buildings,  both  munici- 
pal and  private. 

Tests  of  New  Materials. 

Sec.  20.  New  structural  material  or  whatever  nature 
shall  be  subjected  to  such  tests  to  determine  its  character  and 
quality  as  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  for  the  borough  in 
which  the  material  is  to  be  used  shall  direct ;  the  tests  shall 
be  made  under  the  supervision  of  said  Commissioner,  or  he 
may  direct  the  architect  or  owner  to  file  with  him  a  certified 
copy  of  the  results  of  tests,  such  as  he  may  direct  shall  be 
made. 

Structural  Materials. 

Sec.  21.  Wrought  Iron.  All  wrought  iron  shall  be  uni- 
form in  character,  fibrous,  tough  and  ductile.  It  shall  have  an 
ultimate  tensile  resistance  of  not  less  than  48,000-  pounds  per 
square  inch,  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  24,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  and  an  elongation  of  20  per  cent,  in  eight  inches, 
when  tested  in  small  specimens. 

Steel.  All  structural  steel  shall  have  an  ultimate  ten- 
sile strength  of  from  54,000  pounds  to  64,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Its  elastic  limit  shall  be  not  less  than  32,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  and  a  minimum  elongation  of  not 
less  than  20  per  cent,  in  eight  inches.  Rivet  steel  shall  have 
an  ultimate  strength  of  from  50,000  to  58,000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

Cast  Steel  shall  be  made  of  open  hearth  steel,  containing 
one-quarter  to  one-half  per  cent,  of  carbon,  not  over  eight 
one-hundredths  of  one  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  and  shall  be 
practically  free  from  blow-holes. 


132  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Cast  Iron  shall  be  of  good  foundry  mixture,  producing  a 
clean,  tough,  gray  iron.  Sample  bars,  five  feet  long,  one  inch 
square,  cast  in  sand  moulds,  placed  on  supports  four  feet 
six  inches  apart,  shall  bear  a  central  load  of  450  pounds 
before  breaking.  Castings  shall  be  free  of  serious  blow- 
holes, cinder  spots  and  cold  shuts.  Ultimate  tensile  strength 
shall  be  not  less  than  16,000  pounds  per  square  inch  when 
tested  in  small  specimens. 

Foundations. 

Sec.  25.  Where  metal  is  incorporated  in  or  forms  part 
of  a  foundation  it  shall  be  thoroughly  protected  from  rust 
by  paint,  asphaltum,  concrete,  or  by  such  materials  and  in 
such  manner  as  may  be  approved  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Buildings.  When  footings  of  iron  or  steel  for  columns  are 
placed  below  the  water  level,  they  shall  be  similarly  coated, 
or  enclosed  in  concrete,  for  preservation  against  rust. 

Foundation  Walls. 

Sec.  26.  Foundation  walls  shall  be  construed  to  include 
all  walls  and  piers  built  below  the  curb  level,  or  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  the  curb,  to  serve  as  supports  for  walls, 
piers,  columns,  girders,  posts  or  beams. 

The  footing  or  base  course  shall  be  of  stone  or  con- 
crete, or  both,  or  of  concrete  and  stepped-up  brickwork,  of 
sufficient  thickness  and  area  to  safely  bear  the  weight  to 
be  imposed  thereon.  If  the  footing  or  base  course  be  of 
concrete,  the  concrete  shall  not  be  less  than  twelve  inches 
thick.  If  of  stone,  the  stones  shall  not  be  less  than  two 
by  three  feet,  and  at  least  eight  inches  in  thickness  for 
walls ;  and .  not  less  than  ten  inches  in  thickness  if  under 
piers,  columns  or  posts;  the  footing  or  base  course,  whether 
formed  of  concrete  or  stone,  shall  be  at  least  twelve  inches 
vvider  than  the  bottom  width  of  walls,  and  at  least  twelve 
inches  wider  on  all  sides  than  the  bottom  width  of  said 
piers,  columns  or  posts. 

If  the  superimposed  load  is  such  as  to  cause  undue 
transverse  strain  on  a  footing  projecting  twelve  inches,  the 
thickness  of  such  footing  is  to  be  increased  so  as  to  carry 
the  load  with  safety.  For  small  structures  and  for  small 
piers  sustaining  light  loads,  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings 
having  jurisdiction  may,  in  his  discretion,  allow  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  thickness  and  projection  for  footing  or  base 
courses  herein  specified. 

If,  in  place  of  a  continuous  foundation  wall,  isolated 
piers  are  to  be  built  to  support  the  superstructure,  grillage 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  133 

beams  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  resting  on  a  proper  con- 
crete bed  may  be  used.  Such  beams  must  be  provided 
with  separators  and  bolts  inclosed  and  filled  solid  between 
with  concrete,  and  of  such  sizes  and  so  arranged  as  to 
transmit  with  safety  the  superimposed  loads. 

Walls   and   Piers. 

Sec.  28.  Bearing  walls  shall  be  taken  to  mean  those 
walls  on  which  the  beams,  girders  or  trusses  rest. 

The  walls  and  piers  of  all  buildings  shall  be  properly  and 
solidly  bonded  together  with  close  joints  filled  with  mortar. 

All  piers  shall  be  built  of  stone  or  good,  hard,  well 
burnt  brick  laid  in  cement  mortar.  Every  pier  built  of 
brick,  containing  less  than  nine  superficial  feet  at  the  base, 
supporting  any  beam,  girder,  arch  or  column  on  which  a 
wall  rests,  or  lintel  spanning  an  opening  over  ten  feet  and 
supporting  a  wall,  shall  at  intervals  of  not  over  thirty  inches 
apart  in  height  have  built  into  it  a  bond  stone  not  less 
than  four  inches  thick,  or  a  cast  iron  plate  of  sufficient 
strength  and  the  full  size  of  the  piers.  For  piers  fronting 
on  a  street  the  bond  stones  may  conform  with  the  kind 
of  stone  used  for  the  trimmings  of  the  front.  Cap  stones 
of  cut  granite  or  bluestone,  proportioned  to  the  weight  to 
be  carried,  but  not  less  than  five  inches  in  thickness,  by 
the  full  size  of  the  pier,  or  cast-iron  plates  of  equal  strength 
by  the  full  size  of  the  pier,  shall  be  set  under  all  columns 
or  girders,  except  where  a  four-inch  bond  stone  is  placed 
immediately  below  said  cap  stone,  in  which  case  the  cap 
stone  may  be  reduced  in  horizontal  dimensions  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdic- 
tion. 

Walls  Tied,  Anchored  and  Braced. 

Sec.  41.  All  exterior  piers  shall  be  anchored  to  the 
beams  or  girders  on  the  level  of  each  tier. 

Arches  and  Lintels. 

Sec.  42.  Openings  for  doors  and  windows  in  all  build- 
ings shall  have  good  and  sufficient  arches  of  stone,  brick 
or  terra  cotta,  well  built  and  keyed  with  good  and  suffi- 
cient abutments,  or  lintels  of  stone,  iron  or  steel  of  sufficient 
strength,  which  shall  have  a  bearing  at  each  end  of  not 
less  than  five  inches  on  the  wall.  On  the  inside  of  all 
openings  in  which  lintels  shall  be  less  than  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  to  be  supported  there  shall  be  timber  lintels, 
which  shall  rest  at  each  end  not  more  than  three  inches 


i34  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

on  any  wall,  which  shall  be  chamfered  at  each  end,  and 
shall  have  a  suitable  arch  turned  over  the  timber  lintel.  Or 
the  inside  lintel  may  be  of  cast  iron,  or  wrought  iron  or 
steel,  and  in  such  case  stone  blocks  or  cast  iron  plates  shall 
not  be  required  at  the  ends  where  the  lintel  rests  on  the 
walls,  provided  the  opening  is  not  more  than  six  feet  in 
width. 

Brick  and  Hollow  Tile  Partitions. 

Sec.  49.  Eight-inch  brick  and  six-inch  and  four-inch 
hollow  tile  partitions,  of  hard-burnt  clay  or  porous  terra- 
cotta, may  be  built,  not  exceeding  in  their  vertical  por- 
tions a  measurement  of  fifty,  thirty-six  and  twenty-four  feet 
respectively,  and  in  their  horizontal  measurement  a  length 
not  exceeding  seventy-five  feet,  unless  strengthened  by  proper 
cross-walls,  piers  or  buttresses,  or  built  in  iron  or  .steel  frame- 
work. All  such  partitions  shall  be  carried  on  proper  founda- 
tions, or  on  iron  or  steel  girders,  or  on  iron  or  steel  girders 
and  columns  or  piers  of  masonry. 

Anchors   and   Straps   for   Wood   Beams   and   Girders. 

Sec.  60.  Each  tier  of  beams  shall  be  anchored  to  the 
side,  front,  rear  or  party  walls  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  six  feet  apart,  with  good,  strong  wrought  iron  anchors 
of  not  less  than  one  and  a  half  inches  by  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  size,  well  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  beams 
by  two  or  more  nails  made  of  wrought  iron  at  least  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Where  the  beams  are  sup- 
ported by  girders,  the  girders  shall  be  anchored  to  the  walls 
and  fastened  to  each  other  by  suitable  iron  straps.  The 
ends  of  wood  beams  resting  upon  girders  shall  be  butted 
together  end  to  end  and  strapped  by  wrought  iron  straps 
of  the  same  size  and  distance  apart  and  in  the  same  beam 
as  the  wall  anchors,  and  shall  be  fastened  in  the  same  manner 
as  said  wall  anchors.  Or  they  may  lap  each  other  at  least 
twelve  inches,  and  be  well  spiked  or  bolted  together  where 
lapped. 

Each  tier  of  beams  front  and  rear,  opposite  each  pier, 
shall  have  hard  wood  anchor  strips  dovetailed  into  the  beams 
diagonally,  which  strips  shall  cover  at  least  four  beams  and 
be  one  inch  thick  and  four  inches  wide,  but  no  such  anchor 
strips  shall  be  let  in  within  four  feet  of  the  centre  line  of 
the  beams ;  or  wood  strips  may  be  nailed  on  the  top  of  the 
beams  and  kept  in  place  until  the  floors  are  being  laid. 
Every  pier  and  wall,  front  or  rear,  shall  be  well  anchored 
to  the  beams  of  each  story,  with  the  same  size  anchors 
as  are  required  for  side  walls,  which  anchors  shall  hook 
over  the  fourth  beam. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  135 

Wood    Columns   and    Plates. 

Sec.  61.  All  timber  columns  shall  be  squared  at  the 
ends  perpendicular  to  their  axes.  To  prevent  the  unit  stresses 
from  exceeding  those  fixed  in  this  Code,  timber  or  iron  cap 
and  base  plates  shall  be  provided.  Additional  iron  cheek 
plates  shall  be  placed  between  the  cap  and  the  base  plates 
and  bolted  to  the  girders  when  required  to  transmit  the 
loads  with  safety. 

Engineers'  Stationary  Ladders. 

Sec.  76.  Every  building  in  which  boilers  or  machinery 
are  placed  in  the  cellar  or  lowest  story  shall  have  stationary 
iron  ladders  or  stairs  from  such  story  leading  direct  to  a 
manhole  above,  on  the  sidewalk  or  other  outside  exit. 

Metal    Skylights. 

Sec.  78.  All  skylights  having  a  superficial  area  of  more 
than  nine  square  feet,  placed  in  any  building,  shall  have 
the  sashes  and  frames  thereof  constructed  of  iron  and  glass. 

Tanks. 

Sec.  93.  Tanks  containing  more  than  five  hundred  gal- 
lons of  water  or  other  fluid  hereafter  placed  in  any  story, 
or  on  the  roof  or  above  the  roof  of  any  building  now 
or  hereafter  erected,  shall  be  supported  on  iron  or  steel 
beams  of  sufficient  strength  to  safely  carry  the  same;  and 
the  beams  shall  rest  at  both  their  ends  on  brick  walls  or  on 
iron  or  steel  girders  or  iron  or  steel  columns  or  piers  of 
masonry. 

Covers  on  top  of  water  tanks  placed  on  roof,  if  of  wood 
shall  be  covered  with  tin. 

Fire    Escapes. 

Sec.  103.  Every  dwelling-house  occupied  by  or  built 
to  be  occupied  by  three  or  more  families,  and  every 
building  already  erected,  or  that  may  hereafter  be  erected, 
more  than  three  stories  in  height,  occupied  and  used  as  a 
hotel  or  lodging-house,  and  every  boarding-house,  having 
more  than  fifteen  sleeping  rooms  above  the  basement  story, 
and  every  factory,  mill,  manufactory  or  workshop,  hospital, 
asylum  or  institution  for  the  care  or  treatment  of  individuals, 
and  every  building  three  stories  and  over  in  height  used 
or  occupied  as  a  store  or  workroom,  and  every  building  in 
whole  or  in  part  occupied  or  used  as  a  school  or  place  of 


136  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

instruction  or  assembly,  and  every  office  building  five  stories 
or  more  in  height,  shall  be  provided  with  such  good  and 
sufficient  fire-escapes,  stairways,  or  other  means  of  egress 
in  case  of  fire  as  shall  be  directed  by  the  Department  of 
Buildings. 

Fireproof    Buildings. 

Sec.  105.  Every  building  hereafter  erected  or  altered, 
to  be  used  as  a  hotel,  lodging  house,  school,  theatre,  jail, 
police  station,  hospital,  asylum,  institution  for  the  care  or 
treatment  of  persons,  the  height  of  which  exceeds  thirty-five 
feet,  excepting  all  buildings  for  which  specifications  and 
plans  have  been  hertofore  submitted  to  and  approved  by 
the  .Department  of  Buildings,  and  every  other  building  the 
height  of  which  exceeds  seventy-five  feet,  except  as  herein 
otherwise  provided,  shall  be  built  fireproof,  that  is  to  say : 

They  shall  be  constructed  with  walls  of  brick,  stone, 
Portland  cement  concrete,  iron  or  steel,  in  which  wood  beams 
or  lintels  shall  not  be  placed,  and  in  which  the  floors  and 
roofs  shall  be  of  materials  provided  for  in  Section  106  of 
this  Code. 

The  stairs  and  staircase  landings  shall  be  built  entirely 
of  brick,  stone,  Portland  cement  concrete,  iron  or  steel. 

No  woodwork  or  other  inflammable  material  shall  be 
used  in  any  of  the  partitions,  furrings  or  ceilings  in  any 
such  fireproof  buildings,  excepting,  however,  that  when  the 
height  of  the  building  does  not  exceed  twelve  stories  nor 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  the  doors  and  win- 
dows and  their  frames,  the  trims,  the  casings,  the  interior 
finish  when  filled  solid  at  the  back  with  fireproof  material, 
and  the  floor  boards  and  sleepers  directly  thereunder,  may 
be  of  wood,  but  the  space  between  the  sleepers  shall  be 
solidly  filled  with  fireproof  materials  and  extend  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  floor  boards.  When  the  height  of  a  fire- 
proof building  exceeds  twelve  stories,  or  more  than  150 
feet,  the  floor  surfaces  shall  be  of  stone,  cement,  rock,  asphalt, 
tiling  or  similar  incombustible  material,  or  the  sleepers  and 
floors  may  be  of  wood  treated  by  some  process,  approved 
by  the  Board  of  Buildings,  to  render  the  same  fireproof. 
All  outside  window  frames  and  sash  shall  be  of  metal,  or 
of  wood  covered  with  metal.  The  inside  window  frames 
and  sash,  doors,  trim,  and  other  interior  finish  may  be  of 
wood  covered  with  metal,  or  of  wood  treated  by  some 
process  approved  by  the  Board  of  Buildings  to  render  the 
same  fireproof. 

All  hall  partitions  or  permanent  partitions  between  rooms 
in  fireproof  buildings  shall  be  built  of  fireproof  material  and 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  137 

shall  not  be  started  on  wood  sills,  nor  on  wood  floor  boards, 
but  be  built  upon  the  fireproof  construction  of  the  floor 
and  extend  to  the  fireproof  beam  filling  above. 

Fireproof    Floors. 

Sec.  1 06.  Fireproof  floors  shall  be  constructed  with 
wrought  iron  or  steel  floor  beams  so  arranged  as  to  spacing 
and  length  of  beams  that  the  load  to  be  supported  by  them, 
together  with  the  weights  of  the  materials  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  said  floors,  shall  not  cause  a  greater  deflection 
of  the  said  beams  than  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  per  foot  of 
span  under  the  total  load;  and  they  shall  be  tied  together 
at  intervals  of  not  more  than  eight  times  the  depth  of  the 
beam.  Between  the  wrought  iron  or  steel  floor  beams  shall 
be  placed  brick*  arches  springing  from  the  lower  flange  of 
the  steel  beams. 

Said  brick  arches  shall  be  designed  with  a  rise  to  safely 
carry  the  imposed  load,  but  never  less  than  one  and  one- 
quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span  between  the  beams, 
and  they  shall  have  a  thickness  of  not  less  than  four  niches 
for  spans  of  five  feet  or  less  and  eight  inches  for  spans 
over  five  feet,  or  such  thickness  as  may  be  required  by 
the  Board  of  Buildings.  *  *  *  Or  the  space  between  the 
beams  may  be  filled  in  with  hollow  tile  arches  of  hard- 
burnt  clay  or  porous  terra-cotta  of  uniform  density  and 
hardness  of  burn.  *  *  *  The  said  arches  shall  be  of  a 
depth  and  sectional  area  to  carry  the  load  to  be  imposed 
thereon,  without  straining  the  material  beyond  its  safe  work- 
ing load,  but  said  depth  shall  not  be  less  than  one  and 
three-quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span.  *  *  * 

Or  the  space  between  the  beams  may  be  filled  with 
arches  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  segmental  in  form,  and 
which  shall  have  a  rise  of  not  less  than  one  and  one-quarter 
inches  for  each  foot  of  span  between  the  beams.  The  con- 
crete shall  be  not  less  than  four  inches  in  thickness  at  the 
crown  of  the  arch.  *  *  *  These  arches  shall  in  all  cases 
be  reinforced  and  protected  on  the  under  side  with  corrugated 
or  sheet  steel,  steel  ribs,  or  metal  in  other  forms  weighing 
not  less  than  one  pound  per  square  foot  and  having  no 
openings  larger  than  three  inches  square.  Or  between  the 
said  beams  may  be  placed  solid  or  hollow  burnt-clay,  stone, 
brick  or  concrete  slabs  in  flat  or  curved  shapes,  concrete 
or  other  fireproof  composition,  and  any  of  said  materials 
may  be  used  in  combination  with  wire  cloth,  expanded  metal, 
wire  strands,  or  wrought  iron  or  steel  bars ;  but  in  any 
such  construction  and  as  a  precedent  condition  to  the  same 


138  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

being  used,  tests  shall  be  made  as  herein  provided  by  the 
manufacturer  thereof  under  the  direction  and  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  Board  of  Buildings,  and  evidence  of  the  same 
shall  be  kept  on  file  in  the  Department  of  Buildings,  show- 
ing the  nature  of  the  test  and  the  result  of  the  test.  *  *  * 

No  filling  of  any  kind  which  may  be  injured  by  frost  shall 
be  placed  between  said  floor  beams  during  freezing  weather, 
and  if  the  same  is  so  placed  during  any  winter  month,  it 
shall  be  temporarily  covered  with  suitable  material  for  pro- 
tection from  being  frozen.  *  *  *  Temporary  centering 
when  used  in  placing  fireproof  systems  between  floor  beams, 
shall  not  be  removed  within  twenty-four  hours  or  until  such 
time  as  the  mortar  or  material  has  set.  All  fireproof  floor 
systems  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  safely  carry  the 
load  to  be  imposed  thereon  without  straining  the  material 
in  any  case  beyond  its  safe  working  load. 

The  bottom  flanges  of  all  wrought  iron  or  rolled  steel 
floor  and  flat  roof  beams,  and  all  exposed  portions  of  such 
beams  below-  the  abutments  of  the  floor  arches,  shall  be 
entirely  encased  with  hard-burnt  clay,  porous  terra-cotta 
or  other  fireproof  material  allowed  to  be  used  for  the  filling 
between  the  beams  under  the  provisions  of  this  section,  such 
encasing  material  to  be  properly  secured  to  the  beams. 

The  exposed  sides  and  bottom  plates  or  flanges  of 
wrought  iron  or  rolled  steel  girders  supporting  iron  or  steel 
floor  beams,  or  supporting  floor  arches  or  floors,  shall  be 
entirely  encased  in  the  same  manner.  Openings  through 
fireproof  floors  for  pipes,  conduits  and  similar  purposes  shall 
be  shown  on  the  plans.  After  the  floors  are  constructed 
no  opening  greater  than  eight  inches  square  shall  be  cut 
through  said  floors  unless  properly  boxed  or  framed  around 
with  iron,  and  such  openings  shall  be  filled  in  with  fire- 
proof material  after  the  pipes  or  conduits  are  in  place. 

Encasing    Interior    Columns. 

Sec.  107.  All  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  or  rolled  columns, 
including  the  lugs  and  brackets  on  same,  used  in  the  interior 
of  any  fireproof  building,  or  used  to  support  any  fireproof 
floor,  shall  be  protected  with  not  less  than  two  inches  of 
fireproof  material  securely  applied.  The  extreme  outer  edge 
of  lugs,  brackets  and  similar  supporting  metal  may  project 
to  within  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the 
iireproofing. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  139 

IRON   AND   STEEL   CONSTRUCTION. 
Skeleton   Construction. 

Sec.  no.  Where  columns  are  used  to  support  iron  or 
steel  girders  carrying  enclosure  walls,  the  said  columns  shall 
be  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  or  rolled  steel,  and  on  their 
exposed  outer  and  inner  surfaces  shall  be  constructed  to 
resist  fire  by  having  a  casing  of  brickwork  not  less  than 
eight  inches  in  thickness  on  the  outer  surfaces,  nor  less 
than  four  inches  in  thickness  on  the  inner  surfaces,  and 
all  bonded  into  the  brickwork  of  the  enclosure  walls.  The 
exposed  sides  of  the  iron  or  steel  girders  shall  be  similarly 
covered  in  with  brickwork  not  less  than  four  inches  in  thick- 
ness on  the  outer  surfaces  and  tied  and  bonded,  but  the 
extreme  outer  edge  of  the  flanges  of  beams,  or  plates  or 
angles  connected  to  the  beams,  may  project  to  within  two 
inches  of  the  outside  surface  of  the  brick  casing.  The  inside 
surfaces  of  girders  may  be  similarly  covered  with  brick- 
work, or  if  projecting  inside  of  the  wall,  they  shall  be  pro- 
tected by  terra-cotta,  concrete  or  other  fireproof  material. 
Girders  for  the  support  of  the  enclosure  walls  shall  be 
placed  at  the  floor  line  of  each  story. 

Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Columns. 

Sec.  in.  No  part  of  a  steel  or  wrought  iron  column 
shall  be  less  than  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  No  wrought 
iron  or  rolled  steel  column  shall  have  an  unsupported  length 
of  more  than  forty  times  its  least  lateral  dimension  or 
diameter,  except  as  modified  by  section  138  of  this  Code, 
and  also  except  in  such  cases  as  the  Commissioner  of  Build- 
ings may  specially  allow  a  greater  unsupporte<J  length.  The 
ends  of  all  columns  shall  be  faced  to  a  plane  surface  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  columns,  and  the  connection 
between  them  shall  be  made  with  splice  plates.  The  joint 
may  be  effected  by  rivets  of  sufficient  size  and  number  to 
transmit  the  entire  stress,  and  then  the  splice  plates  shall 
be  equal  in  sectional  area  to  the  area  of  column  spliced. 
When  the  section  of  the  columns  to  be  spliced  is  such  that 
spliced  plates  cannot  be  used,  a  connection  formed  of  plates 
and  angles  may  be  used,  designed  to  properly  distribute  the 
stress.  No  material,  whether  in  the  body  of  the  column 
or  used  as  lattice-bar  or  stay-plate,  shall  be  used  in  any 
wrought  iron  or  steel  column  of  less  thickness  than  one- 
thirty-second  of  its  unsupported  width  measured  between 
centers  of  rivets  transversely,  or  one-sixteenth  the  distance 
between  centers  of  rivets  in  the  direction  of  the  stress. 


140  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Stay-plates  are  to  have  not  less  than  four  rivets,  and  are 
to  be  spaced  so  that  the  ratio  of  length  by  the  least  radius 
of  gyration  of  the  parts  connected  does  not  exceed  forty ; 
the  distance  between  nearest  rivets  of  two  stay-plates  shall 
in  this  case  be  considered  as  length.  Steel  and  wrought 
iron  columns  shall  be  made  in  one,  two  or  three-story 
lengths,  and  the  materials  shall  be  rolled  in  one  length 
wherever  practicable  to  avoid  intermediate  splices.  Where 
any  part  of  the  section  of  a  column  projects  beyond  that 
of  the  column  below,  the  difference  shall  be  made  up  by 
filling  plates  secured  to  column  by  the  proper  number  of 
rivets.  Shoes  of  iron  or  steel,  as  described  for  cast  iron 
columns,  or  built  shoes  of  plates  and  shapes,  may  be  used 
complying  with  same  requirements. 

Cast  Iron  Columns. 

Sec.  112.  Cast  iron  columns  shall  not  have  less  diameter 
than  five  inches  or  less  thickness  than  three-quarters  of 
an  inch.  Nor  shall  they  have .  an  unsupported  length  of 
more  than  twenty  times  their  least  lateral  dimensions  or 
diameter,  except  as  modified  by  section  138  of  this  Code, 
and  except  the  same  may  form  part  of  an  elevator  enclosure 
or  staircase,  and  also  except  in  such  cases  as  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction  may  specially  allow 
a  greater  unsupported  length.  All  cast  iron  columns  shall 
be  of  good  workmanship  and  material.  The  top  and  bottom 
flanges,  seats  and  lugs  shall  be  of  ample  strength,  reinforced 
by  fillets  and  brackets ;  they  shall  not  be  less  than  one  inch 
in  thickness  when  finished.  All  columns  must  be  faced  at 
the  ends  to  a  true  surface  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
column.  Colgmn-  joints  shall  be  secured  by  not  less  than 
four  bolts  each,  not  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  holes  for  these  bolts  shall  be  drilled  to  a 
template.  The  core  of  a  column  below  a  joint  shall  be  not 
larger  than  the  core  of  the  column  above  and  the  metal  shall 
be  tapered  down  for  a  distance  of  not  less  than  six  inches, 
or  a  joint  plate  may  be  inserted  of  sufficient  strength  to 
distribute  the  load.  The  thickness  of  metal  shall  be  not 
less  than  one-twelfth  the  diameter  or  the  greatest  lateral 
dimension  of  cross-section,  but  never  less  than  three-quarters 
of  an  inch.  Wherever  the  core  of  a  cast  iron  column  has 
shifted  more  than  one-fourth  the  thickness  of  the  shell,  the 
strength  shall  be  computed  assuming  the  thickness  of  metal 
all  around  equal  to  the  thinnest  part,  and  the  column  shall 
be  condemned  if  this  computation  shows  the  strength  to 
be  less  than  required  by  this  Code.  Wherever  blowholes 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  141 

or  imperfections  are  found  in  a  cast  iron  column  which 
reduces  the  area  of  the  cross-section  at  that  point  more 
than  ten  per  cent.,  such  column  shall  be  condemned.  Cast 
iron  posts  or  columns  not  cast  with  one  open  side  or  back, 
before  being  set  up  in  place,  shall  have  a  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  hole  drilled  in  the  shaft  of  each  post<or  column  by 
the  manufacturer  or  contractor  furnishing  the  same,  to  ex- 
hibit the  thickness  of  the  castings;  and  any  other  similar 
sized  hole  or  holes  which  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings 
may  require,  shall  be  drilled  in  the  said  posts  or  columns 
by  the  said  manufacturer  or  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

Double    Columns. 

Sec.  113.  In  all  buildings  hereafter  erected  or  altered, 
where  any  iron  or  steel  column  or  columns  are  used  to 
support  a  wall  or  part  thereof,  whether  the  same  be  an 
exterior  or  an  interior  wall,  and  columns  located  below  the 
level  of  the  sidewalk,  which  are  used  to  support  exterior 
walls  or  arches  over  vaults,  the  said  column  or  columns 
shall  be  either  constructed  double,  that  is,  an  outer  and 
an  inner  column,  the  inner  column  alone  to  be  of  sufficient 
strength  to  sustain  safely  the  weight  to  be  imposed  thereon, 
and  the  outer  columns  shall  be  one  inch  shorter  than  the 
inner  columns,  or  such  other  or  steel  column  of  sufficient 
strength  and  protected  with  not  less  ,than  two  inches  of 
fireproof  material  securely  applied,  except  that  double  or 
protected  columns  shall*  not  be  required  for  walls  fronting 
on  streets  or  courts. 

Party  Wall  Posts. 

Sec.  114.  If  iron  or  steel  posts  are  to  be  used  as  party 
posts  in  front  of  a  party  wall,  and  intended  for  two  buildings, 
then  the  said  posts  shall  be  not  less  in  width  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  party  wall,  nor  less  in  depth  than  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  to  be  supported  above.  Iron  or  steel  posts  in 
front  of  side,  division  or  party  walls,  shall  be  filled  up  solid 
with  masonry  and  made  perfectly  tight  between  the  posts 
and  walls.  Intermediate  posts  may  be  used,  which  shall 
be  sufficiently  strong,  and  the  lintels  thereon  shall  have 
sufficient  bearings  to  carry  the  weight  above  with  safety. 

Plates  Between  Joints  of  Open  Back  Columns. 

Sec.  115.  Iron  or  steel  posts  or  columns  with  one  or 
more  open  sides  and  backs  shall  have  solid  iron  plates  on 
top  of  each,  excepting  where  pierced  for  the  passage  of 
pipes. 


142  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Steel  and  Iron  Girders. 

Sec.  116.  Rivets  in  flanges  shall  be  spaced  so  that  the 
least  value  of  a  rivet  for  either  shear  or  bearing  is  equal 
or  greater  than  the  increment  of  strain  due  to  the  distance 
between  adjoining  rivets.  All  other  rules  given  under  rivet- 
ing shall  be  followed.  The  length  of  rivets  between  heads 
shall  be  limited  to  four  times  the  diameter.  The  compression 
flange  of  plate  girders  shall  be  secured  against  buckling  if 
its  length  exceeds  thirty  times  its  width.  If  splices  are 
used  they  shall  fully  make  good  the  members  spliced  in 
either  tension  or  compression.  StifTeners  shall  be  provided 
over  supports  and  under  concentrated  loads ;  they  shall  be 
of  sufficient  strength,  as  a  column,  to  carry  the  loads,  and 
shall  be  connected  with  a  sufficient  number  of  rivets  to 
transmit  the  stresses  into  the  web  plate.  StifTeners  shall 
fit  so  as  to  support  the  flanges  of  the  girders.  If  the  un- 
supported depth  of  the  web  plate  exceeds  sixty  times  its 
thickness,  stiffeners  shall  be  used  at  intervals  not  exceeding 
120  times  the  thickness  of  the  web. 

Rolled   Steel   and   Wrought    Iron   Beams    Used   as    Girders. 

Sec.  117.  When  rolled  steel  or  wrought  iron  beams  are 
used  in  pairs  to  form  a  girder,  they  shall  be  connected 
together  by  bolts  and  iron  separators  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  five  feet.  All  beams  twelve  inches  and  over  in 
depth  shall  have  at  least  two  bolts  to  each  separator. 

Cast    Iron    Lintels. 

Sec.  118.  Cast  iron  lintels  shall  not  be  used  for  spans 
exceeding  sixteen  feet.  Cast  iron  lintels  or  beams  shall  be 
not  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness  in  any 
of  their  parts. 

Plates   Under   Ends   of   Lintels   and   Girders. 

Sec.  119.  When  the  lintels  or  girders  are  supported 
at  the  ends  by  brick  walls  or  piers  they  shall  rest  upon 
cut  granite  or  bluestone  blocks  at  least  ten  inches  thick,, 
or  upon  cast  iron  plates  of  equal  strength  by  the  full  size 
of  the  bearings.  In  case  the  opening  is  less  than  twelve 
feet,  the  stone  blocks  may  be  five  inches  in  thickness,  or 
cast  iron  plates  of  equal  strength  by  the  full  size  of  the 
bearings,  may  be  used,  provided  that  in  all  cases  the  safe 
loads  do  not  exceed  those  fixed  by  section  139  of  this  Code.. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  143 

Rolled    Steel    and    Wrought    Iron    Floor    and    Roof    Beams. 

Sec.  120.  All  rolled  steel  and  wrought  iron  floor  and 
roof  beams  used  in  buildings  shall  be  of  full  weight,  straight 
and  free  from  injurious  defects.  Holes  for  tie  rods  shall 
be  placed  as  near  the  thrust  of  the  arch  as  practicable. 
The  distance  between  tie  rods  in  floors  shall  not  exceed 
eight  feet,  and  shall  not  exceed  eight  times  the  depth  of 
floor  beams  twelve  inches  and  under.  Channels  and  other 
shapes  where  used  as  skewbacks,  shall  have  a  sufficient  re- 
sisting moment  to  take  up  the  thrust  of  the  arch.  Bearing 
plates  of  stone  or  metal  shall  be  used  to  reduce  the  pressure 
on  the  wall  to  the  working  stress.  Beams  resting  on  girders 
shall  be  securely  riveted  or  bolted  to  the  same ;  where  joined 
on  a  girder,  tie  straps  of  one-half  inch  net  sectional  area 
shall  be  used,  with  rivets  or  bolts  to  correspond.  Anchors 
shall  be  provided  at  the  ends  of  all  such  beams  bearing 
on  walls. 

Templates  Under  Ends  of   Steel  or  Iron   Floor  Beams. 

Sec.  121.  Under  the  ends  of  all  iron  or  steel  beams 
where  they  rest  on  the  walls,  a  stone  or  cast  iron  template 
shall  be  built  into  the  walls.  Templates  under  ends  of  steel 
or  iron  beams  shall  be  of  such  dimensions  as  to  bring  no 
greater  pressure  upon  the  brickwork  than  that  allowed  by 
section  139  of  this  Code.  When  rolled  iron  or  steel  floor 
beams,  not  exceeding  six  inches  in  depth,  are  placed  not 
more  than  thirty  inches  on  centers  no  templates  shall  be 
required. 

Framing  and  Connecting  Structural  Work. 

Sec.  122.  All  iron  or  steel  trimmer  beams,  headers,  and 
tail  beams,  shall  be  suitably  framed  and  connected  together, 
and  the  iron  or  steel  girders,  columns,  beams,  trusses  and 
all  other  iron  work  of  all  floors  and  roofs  shall  be  strapped, 
bolted,  anchored  and  connected  together,  and  to  the  Avails. 

All  beams  framed  into  and  supported  by  other  beams  or 
girders,  shall  be  connected  thereto  by  angles  or  knees  of  a 
proper  size  and  thickness,  and  have  sufficient  bolts  or  rivets 
in  both  legs  of  each  connecting  angle  to  transmit  the  entire 
weight  or  load  coming  on  the  beam  to  the  supporting  beam 
or  girder.  In  no  case  shall  the  shearing  value  of  the  bolts 
or  rivets,  or  the  bearing  value  of  the  connection  angles,  pro- 
vided for  in  section  139  of  this  Code,  be  exceeded. 

Riveting  of  Structural   Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Work. 

Sec.  123.  The  distance  from  centre  of  a  rivet  hole  to 
the  edge  of  the  material  shall  be  not  less  than : 


t44  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Y%  of  an  inch  for   ]/2  inch  rivets. 

%  of  an  inch  for  fyfa  inch  rivets. 

iJ/6  of  an  inch  for  ^4  mcn  rivets, 

i^  of  an  inch  for  %  inch  rivets. 

\y2  of  an  inch  for  i  inch  rivets. 

Wherever  possible,  however,  the  distance  shall  be  equal 
to  two  diameters.  All  rivets,  wherever  practicable,  shall 
be  machine  driven.  The  rivets  in  connections  shall  be  pro- 
portioned and  placed  to  suit  the  stresses.  The  pitch  of 
rivets  shall  never  be  less  than  three  diameters  of  the  rivet 
nor  more  than  six  inches.  In  the  direction  of  the  stress 
it  shall  not  exceed  sixteen  times  the  least  thickness  of  the 
outside  member.  At  right  angles  to  the  stress  it  shall  not 
exceed  thirty-two  times  the  least  thickness  of  the  outside 
member.  All  holes  shall  be  punched  accurately,  so  that 
upon  assembling  a  cold  rivet  will  enter  the  -hole  without 
straining  the  material  by  drifting.  Occasional  slight  errors 
shall  be  corrected  by  reaming.  The  rivets  shall  fill  the  holes 
completely ;  the  heads  shall  be  hemispherical  and  concentric 
with  the  axis  of  the  rivet.  Gussets  shall  be  provided  wherever 
required,  of  sufficient  thickness  and  size  to  accommodate 
the  number  of  rivets  necessary  to  make  a  connection. 

Bolting  of  Structural  Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Work. 

Sec.  124.  Where  riveting  is  not  made  mandatory  con- 
nections may  be  effected  by  bolts.  These  bolts  shall  be  of 
wrought  iron  or  mild  steel,  and  they  shall  have  U.  S.  stand- 
ard threads.  The  threads  shall  be  full  and  clean,  the  nut 
shall  be  truly  concentric  with  the  bolt,  and  the  thread  shall 
be  of  sufficient  length  to  allow  the  nut  to  be  screwed  up 
tightly.  When  bolts  go  through  bevel  flanges,  bevel  washers 
to  match  shall  be  used,  so  that  head  and  nut  of  bolt  are 
parallel.  When  bolts  are  used  for  suspenders,  the  working 
stresses  shall  be.  reduced  for  wrought  iron  to  10,000  pounds, 
and  for  steel  to  14,000  pounds  per  square  inch  of  net  area, 
and  the  load  shall  be  transmittd  into  the  head  or  nut  by 
strong  washers  distributing  the  pressure  evenly  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  same.  Turned  bolts  in  reamed  holes 
shall  be  deemed  a  substitute  for  field  rivets. 

Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Trusses. 

Sec.  125.  Trusses  shall  be  of  such  design  that  the 
stresses  in  each  member  can  be  calculated.  All  trusses  shall 
be  held  rigidly  in  position  by  efficient  systems  of  lateral 
and  sway  bracing,  struts  being  spaced  so  that  the  maximum 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  145 

limit  of  length  to  least  radius  of  gyration,  established  in 
Section  in  of  this  Code,  is  not  exceeded.  Any  member 
of  a  truss  subjected  to  transverse  stress,  in  addition  to  direct 
tension  or  compression,  shall  have  the  stresses  causing  such 
strain  added  to  the  direct  stresses  coming  on  the  member, 
and  the  total  stresses  thus  formed  shall  in  no  case  exceed 
the  working  stresses  stated  in  Section  139  of  this  Code. 

Riveted  Steel  and  Wrought  Iron  Trusses. 

Sec.  126.  For  tension  members,  the  actual  net  area 
only,  after  deducting  rivet  holes  one-eighth  inch  larger  than 
the  rivets,  shall  be  considered  as  resisting  the  stress.  If 
tension  members  are  made  of  angle  irons  riveted  through 
one  flange  only,  only  that  flange  shall  be  considered  in  pro- 
portioning areas.  Rivets  to  be  proportioned  as  prescribed 
in  Section  123  of  this  Code.  If  the  axes  of  two  adjoining 
web  members  do  not  intersect  within  the  line  of  the  chords, 
sufficient  area  shall  be  added  to  the  chord  to  take  up  the 
bending  strains.  No  bolts  shall  be  used  in  the  connections 
of  riveted  trusses,  excepting  when  riveting  is  impracticable, 
and  then  the  holes  shall  be  drilled  or  reamed. 

Steel  and  Iron  Pin-connected  Trusses. 


Sec.  127.  The  bending  stresses  on  pins  shall  be  limited 
to  20,000  pounds  for  steel  and  15,000  pounds  for  iron.  All 
compression  members  in  pin-connected  trusses  shall  be  pro- 
portioned, using  75  per  cent,  of  the  permissible  working  stress 
for  columns.  The  heads  of  all  eye-bars  shall  be  made  by 
upsetting  or  forging.  No  weld  will  be  allowed  in  the  body 
of  the  bar.  Steel  eye-bars  shall  be  annealed.  Bars  shall 
be  straight  before  boring.  All  pin-holes  shall  be  bored  true 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  members,  and  must 
fit  the  pin  within  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch.  The  dis- 
tances of  pin-holes  from  centre  to  centre  for  corresponding 
members  shall  be  alike,  so  that,  when  piled  upon  one  an- 
other, pins  will  pass  through  both  ends  without  forcing.  Eyes 
and  screw  ends  shall  be  so  proportioned  that  upon  test  to 
destruction,  fracture  will  take  place  in  the  body  of  the  mem- 
ber. All  pins  shall  be  accurately  turned.  Pin-plates  shall 
be  provided  wherever  necessary  to  reduce  the  stresses  on 
pins  to  the  working  stresses  prescribed  in  Section  139  of 
this  Code.  These  pin-plates  shall  be  connected  to  the  mem- 
bers by  rivets  of  sufficient  size  and  number  to  transmit  the 
stresses  without  exceeding  working  stresses.  All  rivets  in 
members  of  pin-connected  trusses  shall  be  machine  driven. 
All  rivets  in  pin-plates  which  are  necessary  to  transmit  stress 


146  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

shall  be  also  machine  driven.  The  main  connections  of  mem- 
bers shall  be  made  by  pins.  Other  connections  may  be  made 
by  bolts.  If  there  is  a  combination  of  riveted  and  pin- 
connected  members  in  one  truss,  these  members  shall  comply 
with  the  requirements  for  pin-connected  trusses;  but  the 
riveting  shall  comply  with  the  requirements  of  Section  126 
of  this  Code. 

Iron  and  Other  Metal  Fronts  to  be  Filled  in. 

Sec.  128.  All  cast  iron  or  metal  fronts  shall  be  backed 
up  or  filled  in  with  masonry. 

Painting  of  Structural  Metal  Work. 

Sec.  129.  All  structural  metal  work  shall  be  cleaned 
of  all  scale,  dirt  and  rust,  and  be  thoroughly  coated  with  one 
coat  of  paint.  Cast  iron  columns  shall  not  be  painted  until 
after  inspection  by  the  Department  of  Buildings.  Where 
surfaces  in  riveted  work  come  in  contact,  they  shall  be 
painted  before  assembling.  After  erection  all  work  shall 
be  painted  at  least  one  additional  coat.  All  iron  or  steel 
used  under  water  shall  be  enclosed  with  concrete. 

Floor  Loads. 

Sec.  130.  '  The  dead  loads  in  all  buildings  shall  con- 
sist of  the  actual  weight  of  walls,  floors,  roofs,  partitions 
and  all  permanent  construction. 

The  live  or  variable  loads  shall  consist  of  all  loads 
other  than  dead  loads. 

Every  floor  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  bear  safely 
the  weight  to  be  imposed  thereon  in  addition  to  the  weight 
of  the  materials  of  which  the  floor  is  composed ;  if  to  be  used 
as  a  dwelling  house,  apartment  house,  tenement  house,  hotel 
or  lodging  house,  each  floor  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength 
in  all  its  parts  to  bear  safely  upon  every  superficial  foot 
of  its  surface  not  less  than  sixty  pounds;  if  to  be  used  for 
office  purposes,  not  less  than  seventy-five  pounds  upon  every 
superficial  foot  above  the  first  floor,  and  for  the  latter  floor 
150  pounds;  if  to  be  used  as  a  school  or  place  of  instruction, 
not  less  than  seventy-five  pounds  upon  every  superficial  foot ; 
if  to  be  used  for  stable  and  carriage  house  purposes,  not 
less  than  seventy-five  pounds  upon  every  superficial  foot ; 
if  to  be  used  as  a  place  of  public  assembly,  not  less  than 
ninety  pounds  upon  every  superficial  foot ;  if  to  be  used 
for  ordinary  stores,  light  manufacturing  and  light  storage, 
not  less  than  120  pounds  upon  every  superficial  foot;  if  to  be 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  147 

used  as  a  store  where  heavy  materials  are  kept  or  stored, 
warehouse,  factory,  or  for  any  other  manufacturing  or  com- 
mercial purpose,  not  less  than  150  pounds  upon  every  super- 
ficial foot. 

The  strength  of  factory  floors  intended  to  carry  running 
machinery  shall  be  increased  above  the  minimum  given  in 
this  section  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  vibratory  impulse 
liable  to  be  transmitted  to  the  floor,  as  may  be  required  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction.  The 
roofs  of  all  buildings  having  a  pitch  of  less  than  twenty 
degrees  shall  be  proportioned  to  bear  safely  fifty  pounds 
upon  every  superficial  foot  of  their  surface,  in  addition  to  the 
weight  of  materials  composing  the  same.  If  the  pitch  be 
more  than  twenty  degrees  the  live  load  shall  be  assumed 
at  thirty  pounds  upon  every  superficial  foot,  measured  on  a 
horizontal  plane.  For  sidewalks  between  the  curb  and  area 
lines  the  live  load  shall  be  taken  at  300  pounds  upon  every 
superficial  foot. 

Load  on  Floors  to  be  Distributed. 

Sec.  131.  The  weight  placed  on  any  of  the  floors  of  any 
building  shall  be  safely  distributed  thereon.  The  Commis- 
sioner of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction  may  require  the  owner 
or  occupant  of  any  building,  or  of  any  portion  thereof,  to  re- 
distribute the  load  on  any  floor,  or  to  lighten  such  load, 
where  he  deems  it  to  be  necessary. 

Strength   of   Temporary    Supports. 

Sec.  133.  Every  temporary  support  placed  under  any 
structure,  wall,  girder  or  beam,  during  the  erection,  finishing, 
alteration,  or  repairing  of  any  building  or  structure  or  any 
part  thereof,  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  safely  carry 
the  load  to  be  placed  thereon. 

Safe  Load  for  Masonry  Work. 

Sec.  134.  The  safe-bearing  load  to  apply  to  brickwork 
shall  be  taken  at  eight  tons  per  superficial  foot,  when  lime 
mortar  is  used ;  eleven  and  one-half  tons  per  superficial  foot 
when  lime  and  cement  mortar  mixed  is  used ;  fifteen  tons 
per  superficial  foot  when  cement  mortar  is  used.  The  safe- 
bearing  load  to  apply  to  rubble-stone  work  shall  be  taken 
at  ten  tons  per  superficial  foot  when  Portland  cement  is 
used;  when  cement  other  than  Portland  is  used, .eight  tons 
per  superficial  foot;  when  lime  and  cement  mortar  mixed 
is  used,  seven  tons  per  superficial  foot,  and  when  lime  mortar 


148  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

is  used,  five  tons  per  superficial  foot.  The  safe-bearing  load 
to  apply  to  concrete  when  Portland  cement  is  used  shall 
be  taken  at  fifteen  tons  per  superficial  foot,  and  when  cement 
other  than  Portland  is  used,  eight  tons  per  superficial  foot. 

Weights  of  Certain  Materials. 

Sec.  135.  In  computing  the  weight  of  walls,  a  cubic 
foot  of  brickwork  shall  be  deemed  to  weigh  115  pounds. 
Sandstone,  white  marble,  granite  and  other  kinds  of  build- 
ing stone  shall  be  deemed  to  weigh  170  pounds  per  cubic 
foot. 

Computations  for  Strength  of  Materials. 

Sec.  136.  The  dimensions  of  each  piece  or  combina- 
tion of  materials  required  shall  be  ascertained  by  computa- 
tion, according  to  the  rules  prescribed  by  this  Code. 

Factors   of   Safety. 

Sec.  137.  Where  the  unit  stress  for  any  material  is 
not  prescribed  in  this  Code  the  relation  of  allowable  unit 
stress  to  ultimate  strength  shall  be  as  one  to  four  for  metals, 
subjected  to  tension  or  transverse  stress;  as  one  to  six  for 
timber,  and  as  one  to  ten  for  natural  or  artificial  stones 
and  brick  or  stone  masonry.  But  wherever  working  stresses 
are  prescribed  in  this  Code,  varying  the  factors  of  safety 
hereinabove  given,  the  said  working  stresses  shall  be  used. 

Strength  of  Columns. 

Sec.  138.  In  columns  or  compression  members  with 
flat  ends  of  cast  iron,  steel,  wrought  iron  or  wood,  the 
stress  per  square  inch  shall  not  exceed  that  given  in  the 
following  tables : 

Working   Stresses    Per    Square 

Inch    of    Section. 

When  the  length  divided  by  Wrought 

least  radius  of  gyration  equals      Cast  Iron.        Steel.         Iron. 

1 20    8,240  4,400 

no 8,820  5,200 

100    9,400  6,000 

90    9,980  6,800 

So    10,560  7,600 

70    9,200         1 1,140  8,400 

60    9,5oo         1 1 ,720          9,200 

50    9,800         12,300         10,000 

40    10,100         12,880         10,800 

30    10,400         13,460         1 1, 600 

20    ~ 10,800         14,040         12,400 

10    n,ooo         14,620         13,200 

And  in  like  proportion  for  intermediate  ratios. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  149 

Working   Stresses   Per  Square 
Inch   of   Section. 

Long  Leaf  White  Pine 

When  the  Length  Divided  by      Yellow     Norway  Pine 

the    Least    Diameter    Equals         Pine.           Spruce.  Oak. 

3C-  46o       350  390 

25  550      425  475 

20  640      500  560 

15  730      575  645 

12  784          620          696 

ic  820       650       730 

And  in  like  proportion  for  intermediate  ratios.  Five- 
eighths  the  values  given  for  white  pine  shall  also  apply  to 
chestnut  and  hemlock  posts.  For  locust  posts  use  one  and 
one-half  the  value  given  for  white  pine.  Columns  and  com- 
pression members  shall  not  be  used  having  an  unsupported 
length  of,  greater  ratios  than  given  in  the  tables. 

Any  column  eccentrically  loaded  shall  have  the  stresses 
caused  by  such  eccentricity  computed,  and  the  combined 
stresses  resulting  from  such  eccentrity  at  any  part  of  the 
column,  added  to  all  other  stresses  at  that  part,  shall  in  no 
case  exceed  the  working  stresses  stated  in  this  Code. 

The  eccentric  load  of  a  column  shall  be  considered  to 
be  distributed  equally  over  the  entire  area  of  that  column 
at  the  next  point  below  at  which  the  column  is  securely  braced 
laterally  in  the  direction  of  the  eccentricity. 

Working   Stresses. 

Sec.  139.  The  safe  carrying  capacity  of  the  various 
materials  of  construction  (except  in  the  case  of  columns) 
shall  be  determined  by  the  following  working  stresses  in 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  sectional  area : 

Compression    ( Direct) . 

Rolled  steel 16,000 

Cast  steel    16,000 

Wrought   iron    12,000 

Cast  iron  (in  short  blocks) 16,000 

Steel  pins  and  rivets  (bearing) 20,000 

Wrought  iron  pins  and  rivets  (bearing) 15,000 

With  Across 

Grain.  Grain. 

Oak 900  800 

Yellow  pine 1,000  600 

White  pine   800  400- 


150  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

With     Across 
Grain.     Grain. 

Spruce 800            400 

Locust    1,200         i  ,000 

Hemlock    500            500 

Chestnut    500         1,000 

Concrete     (Portland)     cement,     i;      sand,    2; 

stone,  4 230 

Concrete     (Portland)     cement,     i;     sand,     2; 

stone,  5 208 

Concrete,  Rosendale,  or  equal,  cement,  i  ;  sand, 

2  ;   stone,   4 125 

Concrete,  Rosendale,  or  equal,  cement,  i ;  sand, 

2  ;  stone  5 u  I 

Rubble  stonework  in  Portland  cement  mortar.  140 
Rubble     stonework     in      Rosendale     cement 

mortar    1 1 1 

Rubble  stonework  in  lime  and  cement  mortar.  97 

Rubble  stonework  in  lime  mortar. 70 

Brickwork    in    Portland    cement    mortar;    ce- 
ment, i  ;  sand,  3 . 250 

P^rickwork  in  Rosendale,  or  equal  cement  mor- 
tar ;  cement,  i  ;  sand,  3 208 

Brickwork   in   lime   and    cement   mortar;    ce- 
ment, i ;  lime,  i  ;  sand,  6 160 

Brickwork  in  lime  mortar;  lime,  i  ;  sand,  4.  .  .  in 

Granite  (according  to  test) 1,000  to    2,400 

Greenwich  stone   1,200 

Gneiss  (New  York  City) 1,300 

Limestones  (according  to  test) 700  to    2,300 

Marbles   (according  to  test) 600  to    1,200 

Sandstones  (according  to  test) 400  to    1,600 

Bluestone,   North   River 2,000 

Brick   (Haverstraw,  flatwise) 300 

Slate    1,000 

Tension   (Direct). 

Rolled  steel 16,000 

Cast  steel 16,000 

Wrought  iron 12,000 

Cast  iron   3,ooo 

Yellow  pine 1,200 

White  pine   800 

Spruce 800 

Oak 1,000 

Hemlock  600 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  151 
Shear. 

Steel  web  plates 9,000 

Steel  shop  rivets  and  pins 10,000 

Steel  field  rivets 8,000 

Steel  field  bolts 7,000 

Wrought  iron  web  plates 6,000 

Wrought  iron  shop  rivets  and  pins 7>5OO 

Wrought  iron  field  rivets 6,000 

Wrought  iron  field  bolts 5>5oo 

Cast  iron   3,000 

With     Across 
Fibre.     Fibre. 

Yellow  pine 70            500 

White  pine   40            250 

Spruce 50            320 

Oak 100           600 

Locust    100           720 

Hemlock    40            275 

Chestnut 150 

Safe  Extreme  Fibre  Stresses   (Bending). 

Rolled  steel  beams 16,000 

Rolled  steel  pins,  rivets  and  bolts 20,000 

Riveted  steel  beams  (net  flange  section) 14,000 

Rolled  wrought  iron  beams 12,000 

Rolled  wrought  iron  pins,  rivets  and  bolts. . . .  15,000 
Riveted  wrought  iron  beams  (net  flange  sec- 
tion)      12,000 

Cast  iron,  compression  side. .  16,000 

Cast  iron,  tension  side 3,ooo 

Yellow  pine 1,200 

White  pine   800 

Spruce    800 

Oak i  ,000 

Locust    i  ,200 

Hemlock 600 

Chestnut    800 

Granite 180 

Greenwich  stone   150 

Gneiss  (  New  York  City) " 150 

Limestone   150 

Slate    400 

Marble 120 

Sandstone    100 

Bluestone  (North  River) 300 


iS2  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Concrete     (Portland)     cement,     i;     sand,     2; 

stone,  4  30 

Concrete  (Portland)  cement,  i;  sand,  2; 

stone,  5  20 

Concrete  (Rosendale,  or  equal)  cement,  i  ; 

sand,  2 ;  stone,  4 16 

Concrete  (Rosendale,  or  equal)  cement,  i ; 

sand,  2  ;  stone,  5 10 

Brick  (common)  50 

Brickwork  (in  cement) 30 


Wind  Pressure. 

Sec.  140.  All  structures  exposed  to  wind  shall  be  de- 
signed to  resist  a  horizontal  wind  pressure  of  thirty  pounds 
for  every  square  foot  of  surface  thus  exposed,  from  the. 
ground  to  the  top  of  same,  including  roof,  in  any  direction. 
In  no  case  shall  the  overturning  moment  due  to  wind  pressure 
exceed  seventy-five  per  centum  of  the  moment  of  stability 
of  the  structure.  In  all  structures  exposed  to  wind,  if  the 
resisting  moments  of  the  ordinary  materials  of  construction,, 
such  as  masonry,  partitions,  floors  and  connections  are  not 
sufficient  to  resist  the  moment  of  distortion  due  to  wind 
pressure,  taken  in  any  direction  on  any  part  of  the  structure,, 
additional  bracing  shall  be  introduced  sufficient  to  make  up 
the  difference  in  the  moments.  In  calculations  for  wind 
bracing,  the  working  stresses  set  forth  in  this  Code  may 
be  increased  by  fifty  per  centum.  In  buildings  under  100 
feet  in  height,  provided  the  height  does  not  exceed  four 
times  the  average  width  of  the  base,  the  wind  pressure 
may  be  disregarded. 

Appeals  and  Modifications  of  Law — The  Board  of  Buildings. 

Sec.  .148.  Each  Commissioner  of  Buildings  shall  have 
power,  with  the  approval  of  the  Board,  to  vary  or  modify 
any  rule  or  regulation  of  the  Board,  or  the  provisions  of 
Chapter  12  of  the  Greater  New  York  Charter,  or  of  any 
existing  law  or  ordinance  relating  to  the  construction,  altera- 
tion or  removal  of  any  building  or  structure  erected  or  to- 
be  erected  within  his  jurisdiction,  pursuant  to  the  provisions 
of  Section  650  of  the  Greater  New  York  Charter. 

Board  of  Examiners. 

Sec.  149.     The  Board  of  Examiners  for  the  Boroughs  of 
Manhattan  and  The  Bronx  shall  be  constituted  as  prescribed 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  153 

by  Section  649  of  the  Greater  New  York  Charter.  Each  of 
said  examiners  shall  take  the  usual  oath  of  office  before 
entering  upon  his  duties.  No  member  of  said  Board  shall 
pass  upon  any  question  in  which  he  is  pecuniarily  interested. 
The  said  Board  shall  meet  as  often  as  once  in  each  week,, 
upon  notice  from  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings. 

The  members  of  said  Board  of  Examiners,  and  the  Clerk 
of  said  Board,  shall  each  be  entitled  to  and  shall  receive 
ten  dollars  for  each  attendance  at  a  meeting  of  said  Board, 
to  be  paid  by  the  Comptroller  from  the  annual  appropriation 
to  be  made  therefor  upon  the  voucher  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Buildings  for  the  Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  The  Bronx. 

Violations  and  Penalties — Courts  Having  Jurisdiction. 

Sec.  150.  The  owner  or  owners  of  any  building,  struc- 
ture or  part  thereof,  or  wall,  or  any  platform,  staging  or 
flooring  to  be  used  for  standing  or  seating  purposes  where 
any  violation  of  this  Code  shall  be  placed,  or  shall  exist, 
and  any  architect,  builder,  plumber,  carpenter  or  mason  who 
may  be  employed  or  assist  in  the  commission  of  any  such 
violation,  and  any  and  all  persons  who  shall  violate  any  of 
the  provisions  of  this  Code,  or  fail  to  comply  therewith,  or 
any  requirement  thereof,  or  who  shall  violate  or  fail  to  com- 
ply with  any  order  or  regulation  made  thereunder,  or  who 
shall  build  in  violation  of  any  detailed  statement  of  specifica- 
tions or  plans,  submitted  and  approved  thereunder,  or  of 
any  certificate  or  permit  issued  thereunder,  shall  severally, 
for  each  and  every  such  violation  and  non-compliance,  re- 
spectively, forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  in  the  sum  of  fifty 
dollars.  Except  that  any  such  person  who  shall  violate  any 
of  the  provisions  of  this  Code  as  to  the  construction  of 
chimneys,  fire-places,  flues,  hot-air  pipes  and  furnaces,  or  who 
shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  Code,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  framing  or  trimming  of  timbers,  girders,  beams,  or 
other  woodwork  in  proximity  to  chimney  flues  or  fire-places, 
shall  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  in  the  sum  of  one  hundred 
dollars.  But  if  any  said  violation  shall  be  removed  or  be 
in  process  of  removal  within  ten  days  after  the  service  of 
a.  notice  as  hereinafter  prescribed,  the  liability  of  such  a 
penalty  shall  cease,  and  the  Corporation  Counsel,  on  request 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction,  shall 
discontinue  any  action  pending  to  recover  the  same,  upon 
such  removal  or  the  completion  thereof  within  a  reasonable 
time.  Any  and  all  of  the  afore-mentioned  persons  who  hav- 
ing been  served  with  a  notice  as  hereinafter  prescribed,  to 
remove  any  violation,  or  comply  with  any  requirement  of 


154  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

this  Code,  or  with  any  order  or  regulation  made  thereunder, 
shall  fail  to  comply  with  said  notice  within  ten  days  after  such 
service  or  shall  continue  to  violate  any  requirement  of  this 
Code  in  the  respect  named  in  said  notice  shall  pay  a  penalty 
of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  For  the  recovery  of  any 
said  penalty  or  penalties  an  action  may  be  brought  in  any 
municipal  court,  or  court  of  record,  in  said  city  in  the  name 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  *  *  * 

Officers  of  Department   May   Enter   Buildings. 

Sec.  160.  All  the  officials  of  the  Department  of  Build- 
ings, so  far  as  it  may  be  necessary  for  the  performance  of 
their  respective  duties,  have  the  right  to  enter  any  building 
or  premises  in  said  city  upon  showing  their  badge  of  office. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Building  Code  Memo  for  Reference  to    Important 

Points. 

General. 

Sec.  4.  Work  contrary  to  approved  plans ;  working  with- 
out a  permit. 

Fireproofing. 

Sec.  105.  Public  buildings  and  all  buildings  over  75  ft. 
to  be  fireproof.  Fireproof  buildings  defined. 

Sec.  106.     Testing  floor  arches;  fireproofing  beams. 

Section  107.  All  interior  iron  columns  to  have  not  less 
than  2"  of  fireproofing  and  all  lugs  and  brackets  not  less 
than  %"  of  fireproofing. 

Sec.  no.  Where  walls  are  carried  on  steel,  all  columns 
to  have  not  less  than  8  in.  of  fireproofing  on  the  outside 
face  and  not  less  than  4  in.  on  the  inside  faces. 

All  girders  carrying  brick  walls  to  have  not  less  than 
4  in.  of  fireproofing,  except  flange  edges  and  projections, 
which  must  have  not  less  than  2  in. 

Grillage. 

Sec.  25.  Grillage;  all  metal  in  foundations  and  all  metal 
below  water  level  to  be  protected  from  rust  by  concrete, 
paint,  asphaltum  or  in  other  approved  manner. 

Sec.  26.  Grillage  beams  to  be  provided  with  bolts  and 
separators  and  to  be  filled  solid  in  between  with  concrete. 

Sec.  129.  Iron  or  steel  under  water  to  be  enclosed  in 
concrete. 

Cast  Iron. 

Sec.  21.     Cast  iron  shall  be  good  foundry  mixture. 

Sec.  112.  Cast  iron  columns,  minimum  5x%  inches  thick. 
Column  joints  to  have  not  less  than  4  bolt  holes.  Flanges 
and  brackets  not  less  than  I  inch  thick.  Shell  thickness 
not  less  than  1/12  diameter  or  greatest  lateral  dimension 
of  cross-section.  Imperfections  not  to  reduce  sectional  area 
by  more  than  10  per  cent.  Where  core  has  shifted  more 
than  one-fourth  the  thickness  of  the  shell,  compute  the 
strength  of  column  assuming  thinnest  side  to  be  uniform 
all  around.  Columns  without  open  sides  or  back  to  have 
Y%  inch  test  hole.  Shoes  under  columns  planed  on  top. 

Sec.  114.  Party  wall  columns  to  be  not  less  in  thickness 
than  the  party  wall ;  and  not  less  in  depth  than  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  to  be  supported  above. 


156  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Sec.   115.     Plates  between  joints  of  open  back  columns. 
Sec.   129.     Cast   iron   columns   not  to  be  painted   before 
inspection. 

Steel  and  Wrought  Iron. 

Sec.  21.     Steel  and  wrought  iron  to  be  of  good  quality. 

Sec.  in.  Steel  and  wrought  iron  columns;  workmanship, 
least  thickness  of  metal,  etc. 

Sec.  116.  Steel  and  iron  girders;  spacing  and  size  of 
rivets ;  use  of  web  stirTeners. 

Sec.  120.  Rolled  steel  and  iron  beams  to  be  free  from 
defects. 

Framing. 

Sec.  120.     Beams  resting  on  girders  to  be  bolted  to  same. 
Sec.    122.     All    iron    work    to    be    properly    framed    and 
connected  together  and  to  the  walls.     Defective  work. 
Sec.  123.     Good  riveting  required. 
Sec.   125.     Trusses  to  be  rigid  and  well  braced. 
Sec.  126.     All  connections  in  trusses  to  be  riveted. 

Separators,  Lintels,  Anchors,  Tie  Rods,  Templates,  Etc. 

Sec.  41.  Exterior  piers  to  be  anchored  to  steel  frames 
at  each  tier. 

Sec.  42.  Iron  lintels  to  have  not  less  than  five  inches 
bearing  at  each  end.  Stone  or  metal  templates  not  required 
for  spans  less  than  six  feet. 

Sec.  61.     Wooden  posts  to  have  iron  cap  and  base  plates. 

Sec.  117.  Iron  beams  used  in  pairs  to  form  a  girder  to 
have  separators  not  more  than  5  ft.  apart.  Beams  12  in.  and 
over  to  have  2  bolts  in  each  separator. 

Sec.  118.  Cast  lintels  to  span  not  more  than  16  ft.  and 
to  be  not  less  than  j^j-inch  thick  all  over. 

Sec.  119.  Cast  iron  templates  or  10  in.  stone  templates 
to  be  used  under  girders  over  12  ft.  long  resting  on  brick, 
For  spans  less  than  12  ft.  the  stone  template  may  be  5  in. 
thick. 

Sec.  1 20.  Tie  rods;  spacing  not  to  exceed  8  feet;  spacing 
not  to  exceed  eight  times  the  depth  of  the  beams. 

Sec.  121.  Templates  to  be  sufficiently  large  to  avoid 
excessive  pressure  on  masonry. 

Painting. 

Sec.  129.  Iron  or  steel  under  water  to  be  enclosed  in 
concrete.  All  structural  metal  work  shall  be  cleaned  and 
painted  one  coat  of  paint.  After  erection  all  work  shall  be 
painted  at  least  one  additional  coat.  Cast  iron  columns  not 
to  be  painted  before  inspection. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
Special  Regulations  of  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 

It  often  happens  that  the  Building  Code  does  not  cover 
specifically  certain  kinds  of  work  going  on  within  the  limits 
of  a  borough.  Any  additional  regulations  may  be  established 
within  a  borough  by  the  Superintendent.  Violating  such  reg- 
ulations is  just  as  serious  as  violating  any  provisions  of  the 
Code. 

Regulations  made  by  the  Superintendent  are  generally 
printed  for  distribution.  Following  are  examples  of  special 
rules  and  regulations  in  force  in  Manhattan  Borough : 

PROJECTIONS  BEYOND  BUILDING  LINE. 

(Bulletin  No.  i,  January  3,  1911.) 

NOTICE  IS  HEREBY  GIVEN  that  on  and  after  this 
date  no  building  plans  not  already  on  file  in  this  department, 
or  in  the  Tenement  House  Department,  will  be  approved  by 
the  Bureau  of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan 
which  provide  for  an  encroachment  by  any  part  of  the  build- 
ing beyond  the  building  or  lot  lines  at  any  point  less  than 
ten  feet  above  the  curb  grade,  except  that : 

(a)  Non-supporting  columns  or  pilasters,  including  their 
mouldings  and   bases,   may  project  not  more  than  two  and 
one-half  per  cent,  of  the  width  of  the  street,  and  in  no  case 
more  than  two  feet  beyond  the  building  line. 

(b)  Steps  leading  up  or  down  at  entrances,  and  included 
between    ornamental    columns,   pilasters   or   check   pieces   at 
least   three   feet   high,   at   the   sides   of   such   entrances,   pro- 
vided they  do  not  exceed,  together  or   separately,   one-fifth 
of  the  width  of  the  lot,  may  project  not  more  than  two  and 
one-half  per  cent,  of  the  width  of  the  street,  and  in  no  case 
more  than  eighteen  inches  beyond  the  building  line. 

(c)  Mouldings  or  ornamentations  of  a  decorative  char- 
acter,  and   base   courses,   including  the   water-table,   not   ex- 
ceeding five  feet  in  height  above  the  curb  grade,  may  project 
not  more  than  one  and  one-fourth  per  cent,  of  the  width  of 
the  street,  and  in  no  case  more  than  ten  inches  beyond  the 
building  line. 


158  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

(d)  Rustications  may  project  not  more  than  four  inches 
beyond  the  building  line. 

Marquises  or  awnings,  supported  wholly  from  the  build- 
ing, will  be  permitted  where  they  do  not  extend  more  than 
two  and  one-half  feet  on  either  side  of  an  entrance,  provided 
they  are  constructed  of  iron  and  glass  or  other  incombustible 
material,  and  are  properly  drained. 

ELECTRIC  SIGNS. 

(Amended  ordinance  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen,  approved 'by 
the  Mayor,  July  24,  1912.) 

Section  I.  Any  letter,  word,  model,  sign,  device  or  repre- 
sentation used  in  the  nature  of  an  advertisement,  announce- 
ment or  direction  illuminated  by  electricity,  erected  on  any 
building  in  the  City  of  New  York,  and  extending  beyond  the 
building  line,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  electric  sign. 

Section  2.  Electric  signs  are  permitted  in  the  City  of 
New  York  and  the  City  Clerk  is  empowered  to  issue  licenses 
therefor  under  the  following  terms  and  conditions,  to  wit: 

A.  Upon   the   payment  by   the   applicant   of   an   annual 
license  fee  of  ten  cents  for  each  square  foot  of  sign  space  or 
part   of   square   foot   of   such   sign   space   displayed   on   such 
electric  sign,  to  be  computed  and  collected  by  the  City  Clerk 
of  the   City  of   New  York.     The   square  feet  of   sign   space 
on  one  side  of  an  electric  sign,  however,  shall  be -deemed  to 
be  the  entire   number  of  square  feet   of  sign   space  for  the 
purpose  of  computing  the  license  fee  herein  referred  to  and 
required  to  be  paid. 

B.  That  no  electric   sign   shall   extend   more  than   eight 
feet  from  the  building  line  in  the  City  of  New  York. 

C.  That  no  electric   sign   shall  be  less  than  ten  feet  in 
the  clear  above  the  level  of  the  sidewalk  beneath  such  sign. 

D.  That  electric  signs  shall  be  constructed  entirely  of 
metal  or  other  incombustible  material,  except  the  insulation 
thereof,  including  the  uprights,  supports  and  braces  for  the 
same,  and  shall  be  properly  and  firmly  attached  to  the  build- 
ing,  and    shall   be   so   constructed   as   not   to   be   or   become 
dangerous. 

E.  That  no  electric  sign   shall  be  so  erected  as  to  ob- 
struct or  prevent  free  ingress  and  egress  to  any  window  or 
fire  escape  on  any  building  in  the  City  of  New  York. 

F.  That  prior  to  the  erection  of  any  electric  sign  in  the 
City  of  New  York,  a  license  therefor  must  be  obtained  from 
the  Clerk  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  before  the  issuance 
of  any  license  herein  by  said  City  Clerk  for  the  said  electric 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  159 

sign,  the  applicant  shall  first  file  with  the  Superintendent  of 
Buildings  of  the  borough  wherein  the  said  electric  sign  is  to 
be  erected,  plans  and  statements  of  the  proposed  electric  sign 
and  method  of  attachment  of  same  to  the  building. 

MOVING  PICTURE   BOOTHS. 

(Bulletin  32,  1911.) 

Booths  enclosing  cinematograph  or  similar  apparatus. 

Such  booths  shall  be  at  least  seven  feet  in  height.  If 
one  machine  is  to  be  operated  in  such  booth  the  floor  space 
shall  not  be  less  than  forty-eight  square  feet.  If  more  than 
one  machine  is  to  be  operated  therein,  an  additional  twenty- 
four  square  feet  shall  be  provided  for  each  such  additional 
machine.  Such  booths  shall  be  constructed  with  a  frame- 
work of  iron  angles  not  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  inches 
by  one  and  one-quarter  inches  by  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
thick,  the  adjacent  iron  members  being  joined  firmly  with 
angle  plates  of  iron.  The  iron  members  of  the  framework 
shall  be  spaced  not  more  than  four  feet  apart  on  the  sides  and 
not  more  than  three  feet  apart  on  the  front  and  back  and 
top  of  such  booth.  The  asbestos  board  shall  completely  cover 
the  sides,  top  and  all  joints  of  such  booth.  The  sheets  shall 
be  at  least  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and  shall  be 
securely  attached  to  the  iron  framework  by  means  of  iron 
bolts  or  rivets.  The  floor  space  occupied  by  the  booth  shall 
also  be  covered  with  asbestos  board  not  less  than  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  There  shall  be  provided  for 
the  booth  a  door  not  less  than  two  feet  wide  and  six  feet 
high,  consisting  of  an  angle  iron  frame  covered  with  sheets 
of  asbestos  board  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  attached 
to  the  framework  of  the  booth  by  hinges,  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  door  shall  be  kept  closed  at  all  times  when  not  used 
for  ingress  or  egress.  The  operating  windows,  one  for  each 
machine  to  be  operated  therein  and  one  for  the  operator 
thereof,  shall  be  no  larger  than  reasonably  necessary  to 
secure  the  desired  service,  and  shutters  of  asbestos  board 
shall  be  provided  for  each  window.  When  the  windows  are 
open,  the  shutters  shall  be  so  suspended  and  arranged  that 
they  will  automatically  close  the  window  openings,  upon 
the  operating  of  some  suitable  fusible  or  mechanical  releasing 
device. 

No  apparatus  for  projecting  moving  pictures  shall  be 
operated  until  a  certificate  has  been  obtained  from  the  Super- 
intendent of  Buildings  that  the  booth  enclosing  the  same  is 
in  accordance  with  the  law. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Extracts  from  the  State  Labor  Law  and  the 
Sanitary  Code. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  STATE  LABOR  LAWS. 

Following  are  some  of  the  main  provisions  of  the  State 
labor  laws,  which  are  partly  enforced  by  the  inspectors  of 
the  Bureau  of  Buildings.  Violations  of  these  provisions  are 
reported  to  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  who  in  turn 
notifies  the  State  Labor  Bureau.  This  last  authority  prose- 
cutes all  labor  law  violations. 

Chapter  36  of  the  Laws  of  1909,  constituting  Chapter  31 
of  the  Consolidated  Laws,  as  amended  to  October  I,  1911. 

Scaffolding  for  Use  of  Employees. 

Sec.  18.  A  person  employing  or  directing  another  to 
perform  labor  of  any  kind  in  the  erection,  repairing,  altering 
or  painting  of  a  house,  building  or  structure  shall  not  furnish 
or  erect,  or  cause  to  be  furnished  or  erected  for  the  per- 
formance of  such  labor,  scaffolding,  hoists,  stays,  ladders  or 
other  mechanical  contrivances  which  are  unsafe,  unsuitable 
or  improper,  and  which  are  not  so  constructed,  placed  and 
operated  as  to  give  proper  protection  to  the  life  and  limb 
of  a  person  so  employed  or  engaged. 

Scaffolding  or  staging  swung  or  suspended  from  an  over- 
head support,  or  erected  with  stationary  supports,  more  than 
twenty  feet  from  the  ground  or  floor,  except  scaffolding 
wholly  within  the  interior  of  a  building  and  which  covers 
the  entire  floor  space  of  any  room  therein,  shall  have  a  safety 
rail  of  suitable  material,  properly  bolted,  secured  and  braced, 
rising  at  least  thirty-four  inches  above  the  floor  or  main  por- 
tions of  such  scaffolding  or  staging  and  extending  along  the 
entire  length  of  the  outside  and  the  ends  thereof,  with  such 
openings  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  delivery  of  materials, 
and  properly  attached  thereto,  and  such  scaffolding  or  staging 
shall  be  so  fastened  as  to  prevent  the  same  from  swaying 
from  the  building  or  structure. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  161 

Inspection  of  Scaffolding,  Ropes,  Blocks,  Pulleys  and  Tackles 

in  Cities. 

Sec.  19.  Whenever  complaint  is  made  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor  that  the  scaffolding  or  the  slings,  hangers, 
blocks,  pulleys,  stays,  braces,  ladders,  irons  or  ropes  of  any 
swinging  or  stationary  scaffolding  used  in  the  construction, 
alteration,  repairing,  painting,  cleaning  or  pointing  of  build- 
ings within  the  limits  of  a  city  are  unsafe  or  liable  to  prove 
dangerous  to  the  life  or  limb  of  any  person,  such  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor  shall  immediately  cause  an  inspection  to  be 
made  of  'such  scaffolding,  or  the  slings,  hangers,  blocks,  pul- 
leys, stays,  braces,  ladders,  irons  or  other%  parts  connected 
therewith.  If,  after  examination,  such  scaffolding  or  any  of 
such  parts  is  found  to  be  dangerous  to  life  or  limb,  the  Com- 
missioner of  Labor  shall  prohibit  the  use  thereof,  and  require 
the  same  to  be  altered  and  reconstructed  so  as  to  avoid  such 
danger.  The  Commissioner  of  Labor  or  deputy  factory  in- 
spector making  the  examination  shall  attach  a  certificate  to 
the  scaffolding,  or  the  slings,  hangers,  irons,  ropes  or  other 
parts  thereof,  examined  by  him,  stating  that  he  has  made 
such  examination,  and  that  he  has  found  it  safe  or  unsafe,  as 
the  case  may  be.  If  he  declares  it  unsafe,  he  shall  at  once,  in 
writing,  notify  the  person  responsible  for  its  erection  of  the 
fact,  and  warn  him  against  the  use  thereof.  *  *  *  All 
swinging  and  stationary  scaffolding  shall  be  so  constructed 
as  to  bear  four  times  the  maximum  weight  required  to  be 
dependent  therefrom  or  placed  thereon  when  in  use,  and  not 
more  than  four  men  shall  be  allowed  on  any  swinging  scaf- 
folding at  one  time. 

Protection  of  Persons  Employed  on  Buildings  in  Cities. 

Sec.  20.  All  contractors  and  owners,  when  constructing 
buildings  in  cities,  where  the  plans  and  specifications  require 
the  floors  to  be  arched  between  the  beams  thereof,  or  where 
the  floors  or  filling  in  between  the  floors  are  of  fireproof  ma- 
terial or  brickwork,  shall  complete  the  flooring  or  filling  in  as 
the  building  progresses,  to  not  less  than  within  three  tiers 
of  beams  below  that  on  which  the  ironwork  is  being  erected. 
If  the  plans  and  specifications  of  such  buildings  do  not  re- 
quire filling  in  between  the  beams  of  floors  with  brick  or  fire- 
proof material  all  contractors  for  carpenter  work,  in  the  course 
of  construction,  shall  lay  the  under-flooring  thereof  on  each 
story  as  the  building  progresses,  to  not  less  than  within  two 
stories  below  the  one  to  which  such  building  has  been  erected. 


162  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Where  double  floors  are  not  to  be  used,  such  contractor  shall 
keep  planked  over  the  floor  two  stories  below  the  story  where 
the  work  is  being  performed.  If  the  floor  beams  are  of  iron 
or  steel,  the  contractors  for  the  iron  or  steel  work  of  build- 
ings in  course  of  construction  or  the  owners  of  such  build- 
ings shall  thoroughly  plank  over  the  entire  tier  of  iron  or 
steel  beams  on  which  the  structural  iron  or  steel  work  is  being 
erected,  except  such  spaces  as  may  be  reasonably  required 
for  the  proper  construction  of  such  iron  or  steel  work,  and 
for  the  raising  or  lowering  of  materials  to  be  used  in  the" 
construction  of  such  building,  or  such  spaces  as  may  be 
designated  by  the  plans  and  specifications  for  stairways  and 
elevator  shafts.  »If  elevators,  elevating  machines  or  hod- 
hoisting  apparatus  are  used  within  a  building  in  the  course 
of  construction,  for  the  purpose  of  lifting  materials  to  be 
used  in  such  construction,  the  contractors  or  owners  shall 
cause  the  shafts  or  openings  in  each  floor  to  be  enclosed  or 
fenced  in  on  all  sides  by  a  barrier  at  least  eight  feet  in  height, 
except  on  two  sides  which  may  be  used  for  taking  off  and 
putting  on  materials,  and  those  sides  shall  be  guarded  by  an 
adjustable  barrier  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than  four 
feet  from  the  floor  and  not  less  than  two  feet  from  the  edge 
of  such  shaft  or  opening.  If  a  building  in  course  of  con- 
struction is  five  stories  or  more  in  height,  no  lumber  or  timber 
needed  for  such  construction  shall  be  hoisted  or  lifted  on  the 
outside  of  such  building.  The  chief  officer  in  any  city  charged 
with  the  enforcement  of  the  building  laws  of  such  city  and 
the  Commissioner  of  Labor  are  hereby  charged  with  enforcing 
the  provisions  of  this  section  and  sections  18  and  19,  and  said 
chief  officer  in  any  city  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the 
building  laws  of  such  city  shall  have  the  same  powers  for 
the  enforcement  of  these  sections  as  are  vested  in  the  Com- 
missioner of  Labor. 

Accidents  to  be  Reported. 

Sec.  2oa.  The  person  in  charge  of  any  building,  construc- 
tion, excavating  or  engineering  work  of  any  description,  in- 
cluding the  work  of  repair,  alteration,  painting  or  renovating, 
shall  keep  a  correct  record  of  all  deaths,  accidents  or  injuries 
sustained  by  any  person  working  thereon,  in  such  form  as 
may  be  required  by  the  Commissioner  of  Labor.  Such  record 
shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor 
and  a  copy  thereof  shall  be  furnished  to  the  said  Commis- 
sioner on  demand.  Within  forty-eight  hours  after  the  time 
of  the  accident,  death  or  injury,  a  report  thereof  shall  be  made 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  163 

in  writing  to  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  stating  as  fully  as 
possible  the  cause  of  the  death  or  injury,  and  the  place  where 
the  injured  person  has  been  sent,  with  such  other  or  further 
information  relative  thereto  as  may  be  required  by  the  said 
Commissioner,  who  may  investigate  the  causes  thereof  and 
require  such  precautions  to  be  taken  as  will  prevent  the  re- 
currence of  similar  happenings. 

Penalties  for  Violation  of  Foregoing  Provisions  of  the 
Labor  Law:  Penal  Law,  Article  120,  Laws  1909,  Chapter  88. 

Negligently  Furnishing  Insecure  Scaffolding. 

Sec.  1276.  A  person  or  corporation  employing  or  direct- 
ing another  to  do  or  perform  any  labor  in  the  erection,  re- 
pairing, altering  or  painting,  any  house,  building  or  structure 
within  the  State,  who  knowingly  or  negligently  furnishes  or 
erects  or  causes  to  be  furnished  or  erected  for  the  performance 
of  such  labor,  unsafe,  unsuitable  or  improper  scaffolding, 
hoists,  stays,  ladders  or  other  mechanical  contrivances;  or  who 
hinders  or  obstructs  any  officer  detailed  to  inspect  the  same,' 
destroys  or  defaces  any  notice  posted  thereon,  or  permits  the 
use  thereof  after  the  same  has  been  declared  unsafe  by  such 
officer,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Neglect  to  Complete  or  Plank  Floors  of  Buildings  Constructed 

in  Cities. 

Sec.  1277.  A  person  constructing  a  building  in  a  city,  as 
owner  or  contractor,  who  violates  the  provisions  of  Article  2 
of  the  Labor  Law,  relating  to  the  completing  or  laying  of 
floors,  or  the  planking  of  such  floors  or  tiers  of  beams  as  the 
work  of  construction  progresses,  is  guilty  of  misdemeanor, 
and  upon  conviction  therefor  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  for 
each  offense  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  nor  more  than  two 
hundred  dollars. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  SANITARY  CODE. 

In  some  instances  where  the  Building  Code  does  not 
specifically  cover  defective  and  unsafe  work,  Sec.  8  of  the 
ordinance  known  as  the  Sanitary  Code  may  also  be  enforced 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings.  The  Sanitary  Code  is 
based  on  Chapter  XIX.  of  the  Laws  of  1897  and  Chapter  XIX. 
of  the  Laws  of  1901.  Section  8  of  this  Code  is  a  most  sweep- 
ing provision,  covering  all  defective  work.  This* section  fol- 
lows : 


1 64  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Misfeasance  and  Nonfeasance. 

Sec.  8.  No  person  shall  carelessly  or  negligently  do  or 
devise  or  contribute  to  the  doing  of  any  act  or  thing  dangerous 
to  the  life,  or  detrimental  to  the  health  of  any  human  being; 
nor  shall  any  person  knowingly  do  or  advise  or  contribute 
to  the  doing  of  any  such  act  or  thing  (not  actually  authorized 
by  law),  except  with  justifiable  motives,  and  for  adequate 
reasons ;  nor  shall  any  person  omit  to  do  any  act,  or  to  take 
any  precaution,  reasonable  and  proper,  to  prevent  or  remove 
danger  or  detriment  to  the  life  or  health  or  any  human  being. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Extracts  from  the  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the 
Bureau  of  Buildings. 

The  following  extracts  are  given  here  for  the  benefit  of 
candidates  for  the  positions  of  Building  Inspectors.  From 
these  rules  and  regulations  a  careful  reader  can  get  an  approx- 
imate idea  of  the  nature  of  the  work  performed  by  Inspectors. 

In  a  well  organized  Bureau  of  Buildings,  as  i.  e.  the  Man- 
hattan Bureau  of  Buildings,  there  are  at  least  six  kinds  of 
inspectors,  namely: 

Inspectors  of  iron  and  steel  construction. 

Inspectors  of  masonry  and  carpentry. 

District  inspectors. 

Inspectors  of  plumbing. 

Inspectors  of  elevators. 

Inspectors  of  plastering. 

Each  inspector  has  a  definite  district  assigned  to  him. 

The  district  inspectors  look  after  small  alterations  for 
which  a  permit  is  issued  in  a  form  known  as  "Slip  Applica- 
tion." They  also  report  cases  where  work  is  started  without 
a  permit,  and  unsafe  cases. 

Inspectors  of  masonry  and  carpentry  have  charge  of  all 
new  buildings  and  main  alterations,  for  which  a  regular  permit 
is  issued.  They  also  take  care  of  demolitions  and  file  unsafes 
on  adjoining  premises  when  necessary. 

Both  district  and  masonry  inspectors  report  to  the  chief 
inspector  about  all  iron  work  requiring  inspection.  These 
reports  are  made  in  writing  upon  blanks  furnished  for  the 
purpose  and  are  turned  over  to  the  iron  inspectors. 

It  may  also  be  noted  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  rules 
that  prevents  an  inspector  from  doing  work  for  private  con- 
cerns after  the  office  hours.  Nevertheless,  it  is  taken  as 
granted  that  an  inspector  working  after  hours  with  a  builder 
will  not  be  qualified  to  pass  an  independent  judgment  on 
jobs  belonging  to  the  same  builder. 

While  inspectors  should  give  during  their  regular  inspec- 
tion work  intelligent  advice  on  difficult  points  of  construction 
whenever  possible,  they  should  consider  as  a  matter  of  honor 
and  of  personal  integrity  demanded  by  the  dignity  of  their 
official  position,  not  to  accept  any  outside  work,  or  anything 
else  that  might  impair  their  judgment  in  making  inspections 
of  building  work. 


166  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

EXTRACTS 

FROM    THE    RULES    AND    REGULATIONS    OF    THE 
BUREAU  OF  BUILDINGS 

of 
THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 

For   the    Borough   of   Manhattan. 

I.  Assistant   Superintendent   of   Buildings.     Duties. 

The  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Buildings  shall  perform 
such  duties  as  may  be  imposed  upon  him  by  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Buildings. 

II.  Chief    Inspector.     Duties,    Responsibility,    Etc. 

The  Chief  Inspector  of  Buildings  shall,  when  so  author- 
ized, be  charged  with  the  same  duties  as  the  Superintendent 
of  Buildings  during  his  absence,  and  with  the  performance  of 
such  work  as  the  Superintendent  may  prescribe. 

The  Chief  Inspector  of  Buildings  shall  be  directly  re- 
sponsible to  the  Superintendent  for  the  proper  conduct  and 
management  of  the  Bureau,  and  he  is  charged  with  the  prompt 
execution  and  enforcement  of  all  laws,  rules,  regulations  and 
orders  of  the  Superintendent. 

III.     Inspectors.     Hours  of  Reporting,  Etc. 

Inspectors  will  report  to  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Build- 
ings, at  the  office  of  the  Department,  at  8:30  A.  M.  each  day, 
except  Sundays  or  legal  holidays,  unless  otherwise  ordered, 
prepared  to  hand  in  the  reports  of  the  operations  of  the  pre- 
vious day  in  their  respective  districts,  and  upon  receiving 
such  instructions  as  may  be  given  them  will  immediately 
proceed  to  the  performance  of  duty  within  their  respective 
districts,  or  to  such  special  duty  as  may  be  assigned  them. 

Leaving  District. 

Unless  by  permission,  no  Inspector  will  leave  his  district 
during  working  hours. 

Daily   Journal. 

Each  Inspector  is  required  to  keep  a  journal,  which  must 
be  signed  by  the  Inspector  at  the  completion  of  the  day's 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  167 

work,  in  which  must  be  entered  a  list  of  the  papers  received 
and  turned  in,  the  time  of  leaving  the  office,  and  the  buildings 
visited  each  day,  whether  new  buildings  or  buildings  being 
altered,  unsafe  buildings  or  buildings  requiring  fire-escapes 
or  proper  means  of  exit.  The  time  of  visit  and  condition 
of  the  work  must  be  noted  in  the  journal,  which  must  be 
signed  by  the  Inspector. 

Books  for  the  purpose  will  be  furnished  by  the  Bureau, 
and  will  be  the  property  of  the  Bureau,  and  must  be  sur- 
rendered by  the  Inspector  when  leaving  the  Bureau. 

Reports  must  be  in  writing  on  the  forms  provided  by  the 
Bureau,  and  be  promptly  presented. 

Violations,  Etc. 

In  cases  of  violations,  the  nature  thereof  must  be  clearly 
stated,  as  well  as  the  number  of  the  section  or  sections  of 
the  law  violated,  and,  as  the  forms  are  printed  and  easily  un- 
derstood, it  is  expected  that  there  will  be  no  necessity  for 
returning  them  to  the  Inspector  for  correction.  No  reports 
will  be  received  unless  properly  made  and  written  in  ink. 
Any  Inspector  who  does  not  feel  qualified  to  properly  make 
a  report  of  a  violation,  fire-escape  or  unsafe  building,  etc., 
will  receive  instructions  upon  application. 

Copies  of  the  Law. 

The  Inspectors  will  be  provided  with  copies  of  the  laws 
relating  to  the  construction  of  buildings  in  this  city,  and  it 
is  expected  that  they  will  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
provisions  of  the  same. 

Daily  Inspections. 

All  buildings  in  process  of  erection  or  alteration  in  the 
respective  districts  must  be  examined  daily  to  see  if  they  are 
being  altered  or  erected  in  conformity  to  the  laws  and  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  and  conditions  of  the  plans  and  specifications 
for  said  construction  or  alteration,  and  also  the  terms  and 
conditions  of  the  plans  and  specifications  for  plumbing  and 
drainage,  as  submitted  and  approved. 

Violations  of  the  Law — Bad  Materials,  Etc. 

Should  the  Inspector  find  a  building  or  buildings  being 
erected  or  altered  without  permit,  he  will  so  report  and  prefer 
a  complaint  against  the  persons  so  violating  the  law.  Build- 


i68  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

ings  in  which  bad  materials  are  used  will  be  reported,  and 
the  Inspector  will  state  in  his  report  how  much,  if  any,  of 
the  wall  or  walls  in  which  such  materials  were  used  must 
be  taken  down. 

Should  the  parties  using  bad  materials  fail  to  cause  the 
removal  of  the  same  within  twenty-four  hours,  tney  must  be 
reported  by  the  Inspector  for  prosecution. 

Complaints. 

All  complaints  referred  to  the  Inspectors  must  be  exam- 
ined and  reported  on  immediately  on  the  form  provided  for 
that  purpose. 

False   Reports. 

Making  false  reports,  or  failing  to  comply  with  these 
rules  and  regulations  on  the  part  of  any  Inspector  will  be 
deemed  sufficient  ground  for  his  removal. 

Ironwork. 

Inspectors  are  required  to  the  report  to  the  Chief  In- 
spector what  ironwork  is  to  be  used  on  any  and  every  build- 
ing in  their  districts ;  also  when  the  same  is  ready  for  inspec- 
tion, and  make  a  violation  case  when  any  ironwork  is  being 
used  before  said  inspection  and  approval. 

Prompt   Report  of  Violations. 

Should  an  inspector  find  a  building  or  buildings  being 
erected  or  altered  with  unlawful  construction,  with  or  with- 
out a  permit,  he  will  so  report  as  soon  as  possible,  that  the 
Superintendent  may  take  proper  action  to  prevent  the  same. 

Badge  of  Office. 

Inspectors  are  required,  while  on  duty,  to  wear  on  the 
left  side  of  their  outer  garment,  and  exposed  to  view,  their 
badge  of  office,  and  any  Inspector  who  shall  loan  his  official 
badge  to  any  person  whatever  will  be  dismissed  from  the 
service  of  the  Bureau. 

Hours  of  Duty. 

Inspectors  are  expected  to  be  on  duty  from  8:30  A.  M. 
to  5  P.  M.,  except  on  Saturdays,  when  they  shall  be  on  duty 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  169 

from  8:30  A.  M.  to  12  M.,  and  except  when  otherwise  ordered 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. 

Entries  in  Daily  Journals. 

All  visitations  to  new  buildings  and  alterations  to  build- 
ings and  all  other  matters  entered  in  Inspectors'  journals 
must  be  entered  with  the  "Sun  Copying  Pencil,"  thus  making 
such  entries  indelible.  Any  entries  made  in  any -other  manner 
wrill  be  deemed  sufficient  grounds  for  the  immediate  dismissal 
of  the  offender.  Said  pencils  may  be  obtained  on  application. 

Violations  of  the  Law. 

All  violations  of  every  nature  reported  by  the  several 
Inspectors  must  be  from  a  personal  investigation,  and  they 
must  be  personally  acquainted  with  all  the  facts  in  each  case, 
and  not  rely  on  information  given  by  others. 

Entries  in  Note-Books. 

Inspectors  are  required  to  state,  in  the  entry  in  their 
note-books,  of  visitations  to  buildings,  the  floor  or  floors  they 
examined  at  the  time  of  such  visitations. 

Inspections. 

Any  Inspector  of  Plumbing  making  an  inspection  of 
plumbing,  and  any  Special,  Building,  Iron  or  Elevator  In- 
spector making  any  inspection,  upon  a  request,  either  verbal 
or  contained  in  any  communication,  not  received  from  the 
Bureau  direct,  will  at  once  be  dismissed. 

All  requests,  verbal  or  written,  for  such  inspections,  re- 
ceived from  any  other  source,  must  be  forwarded  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings  at  once. 

Taking  Papers  From  Office. 

No  official  paper  may  be  taken  from  the  office  without 
permission,  excepting  Inspectors'  copies. 

Official    Communications. 

The  officers  and  employees  of  this  Bureau  are  forbidden 
to  write  letters  of  endorsement  or  recommendation  of  any 
form  of  construction,  mechanism,  or  device  which  may  be 
used  in  any  part  of  a  building,  to  owners,  manufacturers, 


i;o  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

patentees   or   other   interested    persons.      The   penalty   for   a 
violation  of  this  rule  will  be  instant  dismissal. 

All  official  communications,  or  communications  in  any 
manner  relating  to  the  official  business  of  the  Bureau, 
whether  verbal  or  written,  shall  be  made  through  the  Super- 
intendent of  Buildings. 

Private  Interests. 

While  in  the  service  of  this  Bureau  its  officers  and 
subordinates  shall  not  make  use  of  or  apply  any  portion  of 
the  time  they  may  be  required  to  devote  to  the  performance 
of  the  duties  devolved  upon  them,  or  any  information  they 
may  have  acquired  therein,  or  any  authority  or  power  with 
which  they  may  be  clothed,  in  or  for  the  furtherance  of  any 
private  or  corporate  interests  or  purposes  whatever. 

Physical  Disability. 

It  is  made  the  duty  of  all  employees,  in  case  of  physical 
or  other  disability  preventing  their  prompt  appearance  for 
duty  at  the  required  time,  to  report  that  fact  to  their  imme- 
diate superior  in  time  to  enable  the  substitution  of  another 
to  perform  their  duties,  if  necessary. 

Luncheon. 

One  hour  shall  be  allowed  to  each  employee  for  noon- 
day luncheon  or  dinner  in  such  manner  as  shall  not  interfere 
with  the  business  of  the  Bureau. 

Business  Transacted  Confidential. 

The  public  business  transacted  in  and  the  records  of 
the  office  shall  be  treated  as  strictly  confidential  by  the  several 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Bureau,  and  shall  not  be  com- 
municated except  as  may  be  directed  by  the  Superintendent 
of  Buildings. 

Taking  Applications  From  Office. 

Under  no  circumstances  will  any  application  or  drawing 
for  the  erection  or  alteration  of  any  building  be  allowed  to 
be  taken  from  this  office. 

Letters  to  Employees. 

All  letters  addressed  to  employees  relative  to  business 
connected  with  this  Bureau  must  be  referred  to  the  Super- 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  171 

intendent  of  Buildings  before  any  action  is  taken  thereon  by 
the  parties  to  whom  the  same  are  addressed. 

Car-Fare  Bills. 

All  car-fare  bills  not  handed  in  by  the  4th  day  of  the 
month,  at  the  latest,  will  not  be  forwarded  to  the  Finance 
Department  for  payment. 

Improper  Use  of  Official  Badge. 

Any  and  all  employees  of  this  Bureau  who  shall  make  use 
of  his  or  their  position  or  official  badge  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  admission  for  himself  or  others  to  any  place  of 
amusement  during  the  time  of  performance,  or  for  obtaining 
tickets  for  the  same,  will  be  fined  or  dismissed  at  the  discretion 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
Reports. 

GENERAL  REMARKS.  The  inspection  of  premises  by 
a  municipal  inspector  is  an  official  act  and  is  permanently  re- 
corded. This  record  may  be  an  entry  in  an  official  note  book 
or  journal,  or  may  be  represented  into  greater  details  by  means 
of  violations,  unsafes,  or  by  special  reports. 

The  Journal,  or  individual  district  note  book  is  city  prop- 
erty. Brief  reports  are  here  entered  by  the  inspector  on  the 
premises,  and  in  order  to  make  these  reports  permanent,  either 
ink  or  indelible  pencil  may  be  used.  A  journal  report  takes 
generally  one  or  two  lines,  and  consists  of  the  following  in- 
formation : 

The  official  number  of  the  permit  to  build,  classified  as 
N.  B.  (new  buildings)  or  Alt.  (alterations),  i.  e.  N.  B.  73-12 
means  the  73rd  set  of  plans  for  new  buildings  approved  by  the 
Bureau  of  Buildings  of  a  certain  Borough  in  year  1912. 

The  location  of  the  premises  inspected. 

The  time  of  arrival  at,  and  the  departure  of  the  inspector 
from  the  given  premises. 

An  entry  of  number  and  kind  of  materials  approved. 

An  inspection  report  indicating  in  all  cases  the  actual 
condition  of  the  work,  orders  issued  by  the  inspector  to  the 
builders,  and  any  other  items  of  special  interest. 

A  day's  entries  in  an  iron  inspector's  Journal  will  look 
something  like  page  173. 

The  number  of  daily  inspections,  for  an  iron  inspector,  is 
generally  between  12  and  20  and  depends  largely  upon  the 
nature  of  the  work  and  the  proximity  of  the  jobs  to  one  an- 
other and  to  the  main  office.  The  average  time  for  inspections 
for  a  number  of  inspectors  in  a  given  day  in  1911  was  20  min- 
utes for  a  new  building  and  10  minutes  for  an  alteration. 

Violation  Reports  are  of  various  kinds,  depending  upon 
the  nature  of  the  violation  committed.  All  violation  reports 
are  made  out  on  printed  violation  forms.  A  complete  violation 
will  read  like  the  following: 

March  7th,   1913. 

To  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Man- 
hattan : 
Sir: 

I  respectfully  report  that,  on  March  6th,  I  examined  the 
premises  and  building  situated  on  the  front  of  the  lot  on  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


173 


8 


_:       «      53 


1   It 


O.-MC3CC  C* 


* 


S      -S      5  M  •"+:  £ 

52       2       §  o  ^o  - 

as  .  ^  5  5  a-^ 

§        19  =9  «  H  *    $ 


s  - 

£o 


h«  . 

bc£   c-r   e  c   S^   fiS  ct:   o^3  a 

o  o  53  S  "42  o  C  «  53  S  53  C   tj*>   B 

2   §   r-s  ^  r-   § 

i  i  a  £  1  i  .  3  I 


^ 

g,-      o 

o 

J 

^S    S. 

iH 
rH 

h 

00  05         0 

d 

^3 

O 

BB«8          « 

Q 

.  G 

If          ^ 

THURS 

LOCATI 

0  0         | 

a   •      « 

« 

Wai      S 

S 

|1 

TH 

C-l 

|| 

<M 

CO 
rH 

OJ  'w 

cc 

oo 

^s 

05 

SO  O  O  1.7  O  U1 

o  -H  c;  o  »q  IH 

7!        r-i  rH  fi  CO*  CO  ^ 
<-!. 


CO         CO 


*     -a 


fl   s   6 


t>  t?        02        OQ 

Q   C^         CO         00 

SS     ?g     53 


S 

2    § 

a   M 


3  3 

rH          CO 


co      01      co 


S    55 
S    I! 


174  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

N.  side  of  W.  26th  St.,  commencing  about  200  feet  from  the 
N.  W.  corner  of  6th  Ave.  and  W.  26th  St.,  and  known  as  No. 
126-128  W.  26th  St.,  and  find  existing  thereon  a  violation  of 
Sections  122-129  of  the  Building  Code,  as  follows: 

In  that  8  in.  beams  on  ist  tier  West  are  connected  to  20  in. 
girders  by  means  of  defective,  loose  bolts,  insufficient  in  num- 
ber, forming  weak  connections;  same  being  contrary  to  law. 
In  omitting  a  field  coat  of  paint  after  the  erection  of  iron  work, 
same  being  contrary  to  law. 

Said  building  being  semi-fireproof.  Building,  cellar  and 
five  stories  in  height,  50  feet  front,  50  feet  rear,  76  feet  deep, 
and  60  feet  high,  and  occupied  or  intended  to  be  occupied  as 
stores  and  lofts,  and  located  in  the  Borough  of  aMnhattan,  in 
The  City  of  .New  York. 

Name  and  address. 

Owner,  John  D.  Dqe,  65  W.  13501  St. 

Lessee,  Mark  Wise,  50  Riverside  Drive. 

Agent,  Same  as  owner. 

Architect,  Geo.  Tillmann,  1133  Broadway. 

Gen'l  Contractor,  Industrial  Constr.  Co.,  60  Wall  St. 

Iron  and  S.  Contractor,  Stark  Iron  Works,  356  Claremont 
Ave.,  Bronx. 

New  Building,  236  1912 

A  XT  vr/^        Alteration   191 . 

°-       Slip  Application   191 . 

No  Construction 191 . 

What  immediate  action  (if  any)  is  necessary  f    None. 

(Signed)  H.  Butler. 

(Title)  Inspector  Iron  and  Steel. 

It  is  seen  that  each  violation  report  gives  the  official  plan 
or  permit  number  for  the  job,  the  location,  the  section  of  the 
code  or  other  laws  or  ordinances  that  have  been  violated,  as 
well  as  a  complete  specification  of  the  violation  committed. 
This  specification  must  be  brief,  definite  and  must  give  such 
a  description  of  the  defective  work  mentioned  in  it,  that  any 
person  could  locate  this  work  without  any  further  aid  from  the 
part  of  the  inspector.  The  specification  must  not  be  ambi- 
guous and  must  be  such  that  the  City's  Corporation  Counsel 
shall  be  able  to  prosecute  the  case,  should  it  come  up  before 
the  court. 

All  violations  must  contain  a  description  of  the  building 
as  to  size,  height,  number  of  stories,  as  well  as  the  names  of 
the  owner,  architect,  builder  and  contractors. 

All  violations  must  be  reported  as  soon  as  discovered.  An 
inspector,  however,  is  not  expected  to  file  violations  for  un- 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  175 

/.  Se*c.  4.  In  erecting  a  steel  flue  7  ft.  diam.  and  ]/$  in. 
thick,  running  from  cellar  to  roof,  same  not  being  shown  in 
the  approved  plans. 

8.  Sec.  4.     In  that  the  frame  work  of  a  sky  sign  is  an- 
chored to  roof  by  three  ^2  in.  lag  screws  to  each  bent,  in  place 
of  ten  %  m-  lag  screws ;  in  that  rails  supporting  the  sign  prop- 
er are  made  of  wood,  instead  of  steel ;  in  that  bents  are  spaced 
about  seven  feet  apart  instead  of  5'-6",  same  being  contrary  to 
approved  plans. 

9.  Sec.  4.     In  using  6  in.  x  4  in.  angles  instead  of  6  in.  x 
6  in.  angles  in  supporting  terra-cotta  partitions  around  eleva- 
tor shaft. 

9.  Sec.  4.  In  using  one  l/2  in.  bolt  in  each  end  of  angle 
braces  of  sky  sign,  instead  of  two  l/2  in.  bolts,  same  being  con- 
trary to  approved  plans. 

n.  Sec.  4.  In  erecting  winding  stairs  near  the  north 
west  corner  of  the  building,  in  place  of  a  straight  flight  of 
stairs,  contrary  to  approved  plans. 

12.  Sec.  4.     Erecting  two  bonded  brick  piers  3  feet  sq. 
each  in  place  of  12  in.  sq.  cast  iron  columns;  erecting  brick 
arches  between  said  piers  on  the  second  tier  in  place  of  steel 
girders. 

13.  Sec.  4.     In  using  two  12  in.  wrough  iron  beams  at 
the  2nd  tier  front  in  place  of  two  12  in.  steel  beams. 

14.  Sec.  4.     In  erecting  four  8x8x3/4  in.  cast  iron  columns 
at  the  rear  of  first  tier  instead  of  four  8x12x1  in.  cast  iron  col- 
umns. 

15.  Sec.   4.     In   erecting  6   in.   channel   beams   laid   flat 
instead  of  laying  same  on  edge. 

16.  Sec.  4.     Supporting  stair  upright  by  means  of  ex- 
pansion bolts  in  place  of  Y^   in.  through  wall  anchors  with 
washers  on  the  inside  of  the  walls.    Omitting  two  12  in.  chan- 
nel beams  on  first  tier  west,  contrary  to  approved  plans. 

17.  Sec.   4.     Sky   sign  braces   of  single  vs.   double  2x2 
angles;  in  that  the  sky  sign  area  is  larger  than  10x26  ft. 

18.  Sec.  4.     Covering  with  full  metal  a  sky  sign  framing 
intended  to  be  used  for  open  letters. 

19.  Sec.  4.     In  anchoring  a  marquise  to  wood  construc- 
tion instead  of  anchoring  same  to  10  in.  steel  beams  at  the 
second  tier.     Anchoring  wall  hangers  by  means  of  expansion 
bolts  instead  of  through  bolts  with  washers. 


176  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

finished  work,  like  for  unset  iron,  or  for  work  that  might  be 
in  violation  of  the  law  only  after  such  work  has  been  com- 
pleted. 

Committing  a  violation  carries  with  it  a  fine  of  $50.  Not 
complying  with  the  violation  within  ten  days  from  the  time 
papers  were  served,  may  incur  a  maximum  penalty  of  $250, 
when  the  case  is  taken  to  court  and  prosecuted.  When  good 
excuse  is  shown,  however,  the  Superintendent  may  return  this 
fine. 

Following  are  examples  of  common  violation  specifica- 
tions, used  in  connection  with  the  printed  violation  blanks  be- 
fore mentioned.  In  each  case  is  given  only  the  section  or  sec- 
tions of  the  Law  or  the  Building  Code,  which  have  been  vio- 
lated, and  the  specified  violation  expressed  in  a  suitable  form. 
Date,  names  and  location  are  left  out. 

VIOLATIONS  ON  IRON  WORK.  Over  fifty  cases 
of  common  violations  are  here  given.  '  A  careful  study  of  these 
violations  will  present  to  the  reader  a  set  of  common  errors 
found  in  structural  steel  work. 

1.  Sec.  4.     In  erecting  two  15  in.  beams  near  the  N.  W. 
corner  of  the  5th  tier,  3  feet  further  north  of  the  positions 
shown  in  the  approved  plans. 

2.  Sec.  4.     In  erecting  a  roof  sign  near  the  S.  W.  corner 
of  the  main  roof,  no  permit  to  build  having  been  issued  for 
same  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 

3.  Sec.  4.     In  omitting  tie  rods  in  the  second  tier  west; 
omitting  bearing  plates  and  wall  anchors  in  sidewalk  beams ; 
omitting  two  7  in.  beams  in  the  roof  of  the  pent  house  and  set- 
ting the  remaining  beams  56  in.  on  centres  instead  of  48  in.  on 
centres ;  all  these  being  contrary  to  approved  plans. 

4.  Sec.  4.     In  omitting  one  upright  brace  in  a  sky  sgin 
erected  on  the  main  roof ;  in  omiting  gusset  plates  at  intersec- 
tion of  diagonal  members ;  in  using  2x2x^4  angles  for  uprights 
and  braces  in  place  of  2^2x2^x^4  in.  angles;  all  these  being 
contrary  to  approved  plans. 

5.  Sec.  4.     Erecting  9x%  m-  steel  stringers  in  an  exterior 
stairway  at  the  rear  of  the  building,  in  place  of  stringers  built 
of  one  iox^4  in.  steel  plate  and  two  ij^xij^  angles,  same  be- 
ing contrary  to  approved  plans. 

6.  Sec.  4.     In  that  the  framing  supporting  a  roof  sign 
at  the  front  of  the  building  is  not  anchored  to  side  walls  by 
means  of  steel  straps  and  expansion  bolts,  same  being  contrary 
to  approved  plans. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  177 

20.  Sec.  4.     In  erecting  a  12x8  ft.  marquise  on  the  north 
side  of  the  building,  same  not  being  shown  on  the  approved 
plans. 

21.  Sec.  4.     In  erecting  four  8  in.  I-beams  to  form  a  vault 
under  the  sidewalk,  same  being  contrary  to  approved  plans. 

22.  Sec.   4.     In    erecting   a   roof   framing   consisting   of 
7  in.  I-beams  6  ft.,  on  centres  instead  of  4  in.  T  irons  2  feet  on 
centres. 

23.  Sec.  4.     In  using  Bethlehem  beams  and  columns  in- 
stead of  Standard  beams  and  built  up  columns  made  of  steel 
plates  and  angles  riveted  together. 

24.  Sec.  4.     In  erecting  an  iron  stairway  in  cellar  and  a 
gravity  tank  on  the  roof,  both  on  the  west  side  of  the  build- 
ing instead  of  east. 

25.  Sec.  4.     In  omitting  all  steel  beams  above  fire  proof 
passage  at  the  east  of  second  tier. 

26.  Sec.  4-117.     In  erecting  grillages  on  the  north  side 
under  all  wall  columns,  consisting  of  five  20  in.  80  pounds 
I-beams  in  place  of  five  20  in.  90  pounds  I-beams;  in  that 
grillage   beams   are   provided   with   separators   further   apart 
than  five  feet  on  centres;  in  erecting  15  in.  channels  of  less 
weight  than  40  pounds  per  foot  on  the  east  side  of  5th  tier; 
all  these  being  contrary  to  approved  plans  and  contrary  to 
law. 

27.  Sec.  4-122.     In  erecting  grillages  consisting  of  12  in. 
-20^  pound  channels  under  front  columns,  where  plans  call 
for  10  in. -20  pound  channels,  the  webs  of  12  in.  channels  being 
thinner  than  the  webs  of  10  in.-2o  pounds  channels  (and  there- 
fore more  likely  to  cripple  under  the  load).    In  omitting  bolts 
in  connections  of  column  footings  to  grillages. 

28.  Sec.   4-122.     In   using   round   cast   iron   columns   in 
place  of  square  cast  iron  columns  on  ist  tier;  in  that  the  rear 
columns  on  ist  tier  are  set  eccentrically  upon  the  grillage  and 
are  out  of  plumb ;  in  omitting  4x4  tie-angles  between  2nd  tier 
front  columns. 

29.  Sec.  4-122.     In  erecting  8  in.  x  I  in.  cast  iron  column 
on  ist  tier  front  in  place  of  9  in.  x  I  in.  cast  iron  column;  in 
not  bolting  beams  to  cast  iron  columns;  in  using  loose  and 
defective  bolts  on  the  second  tier  rear. 

30.  Sec.  4-122-129.     Erecting  single  20  in.  beams  instead 
of  double  girders  made  of  two  18  in.  beams,  between  all  col- 
umns on  south  side  of  all  floors  to  roof  inclusive;  omitting 
bolts  in  connection  of  girders  to  wall  columns  on  first  six  tiers 


1 78  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

west;  in  not  painting  floor  beams  with  a  second  coat  of  paint 
after  erection ;  in  not  painting  columns  next  to  N.  party  wall 
on  all  four  faces ;  in  omitting  pier  angles  on  second  tier  S. 
All  these  being  contrary  to  law. 

31.  Sec.  4-122-129.     In  that  the  sky  sign  on  main  roof 
front  is  not  supported  on  sleepers  laid  flat  on  roof,  but  rests 
on  wood   cornice  2'-4"  beyond  the  face  of  the  building;   in 
omitting  horizontal  bracing;  in  that  the  connections  between 
front  of  sign  and  face  of  wall  have  been  omitted ;  in  that  the 
sign   braces  are  not  properly   lag-screwed   to  main   roof ;   in 
providing  an  additional  rail  and  an  extra  section  of  steel  fram- 
ing on  top  of  sign  thus  increasing  the  wind  exposed  area  con- 
trary to  approved  plans ;  in  that  two  cross  braces  on  each  bent 
are  omitted  ;  in  that  gusset  plates  are  omitted  ;  in  that  face  up- 
rights  are   made   of  2j/£x2xj4    in-   angles  instead  of  2 1/2x2  ^2  x 
5/16  in.  angles;  in  using  y%  in.  diameter  bolts  instead  of  y2  in. 
diameter  bolts  in  all  bolted  connections;  in  that  the  iron  used 
in  the  two  east  bents  is  unpainted  and  in  a  corroded  condition. 

32.  Sec.   60.     Omitting   iron   straps   required   to   anchor 
wall  girders  in  store  front  to  wooden  floor  beams  of  the  second 
tier. 

33.  Sec.  in.     In  that  the  lower  ends  of  columns  3-5-9-011 
4th  tier  rear  are  not  faced  to  a  plane  surface  at  right  angles 
to  the  axis  of  the  column  but  are  sawed  to  an  uneven  surface 
and  bear  unevenly  on  base  plates  of  columns  below. 

34.  Sec.  112.     In  that  cast  iron  columns  at  the  2nd  tier 
are  not  provided  with  four  y\  in.  bolts  in  each  splice. 

35.  Sec.  112-129.     In  painting  cast  iron  columns  before 
inspection ;  in  not  providing  y%  in.  test  holes  in  same. 

36.  Sec.   112.     In  erecting  on  the  first  tier  front,  round 
cast  iron  columns,  which  are  three  feet  longer  than  shown  in 
the  approved  plans,  thus  causing  the  unsupported  length  of 
these  columns  to  exceed  twenty  diameters;  same  being  con- 
trary to  law. 

37.  Sec.   117.     In  using  pipe  separators  instead  of  cast 
iron  separators  in  between  double  12  in.  girders  on  the  loth 
tier  east,  contrary  to  approved  plans. 

38.  Sec.  117-121-122.     In  that  12  in.  girders  are  not  se- 
curely bolted  to  15  in.  beams  on  first  tier,  the  bolts  being  not 
tightened ;  in  omitting  templates  under  wall  bearing  ends  of 
steel  beams  on  4th  tier  rear;  in  that  two   15   in.  beams  on 
4th   tier  west,   have   insufficient   bearing  on   walls;   omitting 
separators  between  steel  beams  at  second  tier  front ;  in  that 
separators  between   ist  tier  double  beams  on  west  side    are 
over  five  feet  on  centres. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  179 

39.  Sec.    ii.     In  that  tie  rods  in  the   first  tier  of   steel 
beams  are  not  properly  set,  are  of  improper  lengths  and  are 
loose ;  same  being  defective  work  contrary  to  law. 

40.  Sec.  122.     In  that  platforms  on  exterior  stairway  at 
the  rear  of  the  building  are  not  properly   secured   in  place 
against  displacement ;  in  that  hand  rails  have  no  brackets  and 
lack  rigidity;  all  these  being  defective  work  contrary  to  law. 

41.  Sec.  122.     In  that  6  in.  x  6  in.  upright  angles  in  the 
rear  exterior  stairways  do  not  bear  at  splices. 

42.  Sec.  122.     In  that  bridle  irons  supporting  the  wood 
girders  on  3rd  and  4th  tier  are  weak  and  defective. 

43.  Sec.  122.     In  that  girders  supporting  floor  beams  at 
8th  tier  are  not  strapped  and  bolted  together  and  to  the  beams. 

44.  Sec.  122.     In  making  connections  of  12  in.  to  15  in. 
beams   on   the   third   tier  by  means  of   y\   in.   bolts  passing 
through  burnt  holes ;  in  using  slotted  holes  in  standard  con- 
nections in  place  of  13/16  in.  round  holes. 

45.  Sec.   ii.     In  that  the  iron  grating  over  the  area  on 
the  5th  Ave.  side  is  not  properly  supported  and  secured. 

46.  Sec.  122-129.     Omitting  a  field  coat  of  paint  after  the 
erection  of  all  iron  work  in  the  pent  house  framing;  using 
loose  ]/2  in.  diam.  bolts  in  13/16  in.  holes  without  providing 
washers;  omitting  bolts  in  connections  of  4x4  angles  to  12  in. 
channels  on  the  S.  side  of  the  pent  house;  using  loose  bolts 
and  bolts  without  nuts  in  connections  of  T.  irons    to    pent 
house  roof  beams ;  all  these  being  defective  work  contrary  to 
law. 

47.  Sec.   122-140.     In  that  the  stiffeners  used  in  girder 
to  column  connections  for  wind  bracing  do  not  bear  on  ends, 
causing  lack  of  rigidity  against  wind  pressure ;  same  being  de- 
fective work  contrary  to  law. 

48.  Sec.  129.     In  using  unpainted  uprights  and  stringers 
in  the  exterior  iron  stairway  at  the  rear  of  the  building,  same 
being  contrary  to  law. 

49.  Sec.  129.     In  erecting  unpainted  iron  floor  beams  and 
columns ;  in  omitting  one  coat  of  paint  after  erection. 

50.  Sec.  131.     In  overloading  steel  floor  beams  on  first 
tier  with  construction  material  causing  injury  to  connections 
and  creating  a  dangerous  condition. 

51.  Sec.   140.     In  that  the  connections  of  columns-  and 
beams  supporting  the  roof  tank  on  the  north  side  of  the  roof 
lack  rigidity  against  wind  pressure,  the  braces  provided   at 
present  being  insufficient. 


i8o  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Dismissing  Violations.  As  soon  as  a  violation  has  been 
reported,  the  inspector  will  usually  re-examine  the  premises 
at  frequent  intervals  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  law  has 
been  complied  with  within  ten  days  from  the  date  of  the  vio- 
lation, and  whenever  possible  the  exact  date  of  completion  of 
the  work  should  be  entered  in  the  journal. 

When  the  law  is  no  longer  being  violated,  the  inspector 
recommends  the  case  to  the  Superintendent  for  dismissal. 
The  inspector  cannot  dismiss  a  violation.  He  can  only  recom- 
mend it  for  dismissal. 

Special  Reports.  These  reports  are  used  in  all  cases 
when  the  inspector  thinks  it  is  necessary  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  Superintendent  to  any  unusual  or  dangerous  conditions. 
Special  reports  are  used  to  describe  collapses,  accidents  to  men 
and  structures,  defective  or  missing  safeguards,  required  by 
law,  and  defective  methods  of  erection.  They  are  also  used 
in  answering  letters  or  complaints  from  citizens,  in  reporting 
results  of  special  examinations  and  in  notifying  the  Superin- 
tendent that  defective  work  specified  in  a  previous  violation 
is  about  to  be  covered  or  bricked  in. 

Special  reports  are  also  made  when  alterations  will  tem- 
porarily block  fire  exists,  etc.  All  special  reports  must  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  Superintendent  and  must  contain  the  location, 
date  of  letter  or  complaint  answered — if  any ;  the  number  of 
the  violation  pending,  if  any;  then  the  subject  matter  of  the 
report  and  finally  the  signature  of  the  inspector. 

Following  are  several  reports,  relating  to  common  occur- 
rences in  actual  building  work  : 

i.  A  citizen  complains  to  the  Superintendent  of  Build- 
ings that  the  new  12  story  building  under  construction  and 
adjoining  his  property  has  too  many  open  tiers.  The  ^citizen 
thinks  that  the  wind  may  blow  down  the  new  structure 
and  cause  untold  damages  to  his  property.  The  inspector  re- 
ceives the  letter  through  the  Superintendent  and  after  investi- 
gating conditions,  he  reports  as  follows : 

New  York  City,  Jan.   15,   1913. 
Premises  :    26  W.  68th  St. 
In  Re:     N.  B.  1386  of  1913,  and  Letter  of  January  i3th  from 

John  Dobbs,  23  W.  23rd  St.,  City. 
Violation :     None. 
Examined:     Jan.   I4th,   1913. 

Richard  Johnson,  Esq., 
Superintendent  of  Buildings. 
Sir: 

Relative  to  the  above  examination  I  respectfully  report 
as  follows : 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  181 

In  the  building  at  26  W.  68th  St.  the  steel  work  has  been 
completed  up  to  the  8th  tier  inclusive,  and  the  9th  and  loth 
tiers  are  being  set  up.  Floor  arches  have  been  filled  in  up  to 
and  including  the  6th  tier  and  wooden  centres  are  being  hung 
on  the  /th  tier.  The  building  has  a  base  of  50  feet  by  90  feet, 
is  of  a  solid  construction  and  the  floor  arches  are  completed  as 
required  by  law.  In  addition  the  new  structure  is  protected  on 
the  west  side  against  wind  pressure  by  a  tall  building  and  a 
sufficient  number  of  temporary  steel  cables  are  being  used, 
throughout  the  upper  part  of  the  steel  frame,  to  secure  the  nec- 
essary rigidity  until  the  floor  aches  will  be  filled  in.  In  my 
judgment,  there  is  no  reason  whatever  that  would  justify  the 
above  complaint. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

James  Wilson, 
Inspector  of  Iron  and  Steel  Construction. 

2.  During  an  alteration  to  an  existing  loft  building  a  fire 
escape  is  temporarily  closed  by  placing  building  materials  on 
some  of  the  balconies.  Write  a  report  and  suggest  a  suitable 
remedy. 

New  York  City,  Feb.  i5th,  1913. 
Premises :    N.  W.  Cor.  26th  St.,  and  5th  Ave. 

In  re:    Alteration  No.  1265  of  1913. 
Violation  :     No  violation  pending. 
Examined  :    Feb.  Hth,  1913. 

John  Smith,  Esq., 
Superintendent  of  Buildings. 
Sir: 

Relative  to  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  building  is  a  12  story  fire  proof  loft,  with  all  floors 
occupied  by  clothing  manufacturers.  The  existing  fire  escape 
has  been  found  inadequate  and  a  new  fire  escape  is  being 
built  in  compliance  with  a  violation  of  the  Bureau  of  Fire 
Prevention. 

During  the  erection  of  the  new  fire  escape,  the  present  fire 
escaped  is  being  completely  blocked  with  construction  ma- 
terials, thus  making  it  useless  as  a  means  of  egress  in  case  of 
fire. 

I  respectfully  suggest  that  this  case  be  brought  to  the  at- 
tention of  the  Fire  Prevention  Bureau,  for  whatever  further 
action  it  may  deem  necessary. 

Respectfully  submitted  by 

Nicholas  Carter, 
Inspector  Iron  and  Steel  Constru.ction. 


1 82  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

3.  After  ten  days  from  the  time  a  violation  is  issued,  the 
inspector  usually  gets  an  inquiry  slip  from  the  violation  clerk, 
to  re-examine  premises  and  report.     The  inspector  finds  that 
nothing  has  been  done  with  regard  to  the  violation  and  recom- 
mends the  case  to  be  held  for  prosecution. 

N.  Y.  City,  March  2oth,  1913. 
Premises :     S.  E.  Cor.  26th  St.  and  B'way. 
In  re:    New  Building  763  of  1913. 
Violation:     No.  3289  of  1913. 
Examined  :     March  I9th,  1913. 

John  Smith,  Esq., 
Superintendent  of  Buildings. 
Sir : 

Relative  to  the  above  premises,  I  respectfully  report  as 
follows : 

Nothing  has  been   done    to    comply    with    the    law.     I 
therefore  recommend  that  the  case  be  sustained. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

Nicholas  Carter, 
Inspector  Iron  and  Steel  Construction. 

In  the  following  reports  the  introduction,  title,  date  and 
signature  are  omitted  and  only  the  body  of  the  report  is 
given.  It  is  obvious,  that  a  complete  report  will  be  of  the 
form  shown  in  the  three  previous  reports. 

4.  Notice  from  a  citizen  is  received  to  the  effect  that  at 
56  Water  St.  a  man  erects  steel  beams  in  front  of  the  house  for 
the  purpose  of  constructing  a  vault  without  a  permit.     The 
inspector  investigates  and  reports : 

Relative  to  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as  fol- 
lows : 

Six  8  in.  I.  beams,  four  feet  on  centres  and  6  feet  long 
have  been  erected  beyond  the  building  line  between  the  front 
wall  of  the  building,  on  one  side  and  an  old  retaining  wall  on 
the  street  side.  The  construction  is  intended  to  support  a 
vault. 

As  no  permit  has  been  issued  by  our  department  for  this 
work,  I  have  filed  to-day  a  violation  for  erecting  iron  work 
without  a  permit.  In  the  same  time  I  recommend  that  this 
case  be  referred  to  the  Bureau  of  Highways,  for  any  further 
action  it  may  deem  necessary. 

Respectfully  submitted  by, 

5.  Short   and   defective   ladders  are  being  used   by  the 
iron  men  in  erecting  a  steel  framing  for  a  tall  building.     The 
inspector  investigates  and  reports: 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  183 

Relative  to  the  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as 
follows : 

Iron  beams  and  columns  are  being  erected  on  the  7th  and 
8th  tiers.  The  ladders  used  by  the  iron  men  consist  of  3x10 
planks  with  2x^4  in.  cross  pieces  every  16  in.  These  ladders 
are  not  tied  on  top  to  floor  beams  as  required,  and  even  when 
fixed  in  place  are  extremely  dangerous. 

I  respectfully  suggest  that  the  builder  be  notified  by  our 
department  to  discontinue  the  use  of  these  ladders. 

I  also  recommend  that  the  State  Labor  Bureau  be  notified 
about  this  case,  for  whatever  action  it  may  deem  necessary. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

6.  Report  for  Dismissal  of  a  Violation..     When  a  viola- 
tion  has  been   complied   with   in   all   respects,   the   inspector 
writes  a  report  to  the  Superintendent,  recommending  the  case 
for  dismissal.     Every  item  in  the  original  violation  must  be 
mention  in  this  report.     For  instance,  to  dismiss  violation  on 
page  174  the  inspector's  report  will  read  like  this : 

Relative  to  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  defective  connections  between  8  in.  I.  beams  and  20 
in.  girders  on  the  ist  tier  west  have  been  fixed,  by  replacing  all 
defective  bolts  by  new,  good  bolts ;  by  making  all  loose  parts 
tight,  and  by  providing  four  -^  in.  additional  bolts  in  each  con- 
nection, as  directed. 

All  iron  work  has  been  painted  a  field  coat  of  good  paint 
after  erection. 

As  the  law  is  no  longer  being  violated,  I  respectfully  sug- 
gest that  this  case  be  dismissed. 

Respectfully  submitted  by, 

7.  When  the  construction  work  becomes  dangerous,  the 
inspector  must  notify  the  Superintendent  as  soon  as  possible 
to  that  effect.  This  is  usually  done  on  special   (pink)   report 
blanks.    For  instance : 

Relative  to  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  structure  is  a  fire  proof  10  story  loft  50x90  ft.  with 
cast  iron  columns  throughout.  The  7th  tier  of  beams  is  in 
place.  The  floor  arches  have  been  filled  in  up  to  and  including 
the  3rd  tier  only.  Tiers  4-5-6-7  are  open.  The  masonry  walls 
are  up  to  the  2nd  tier.  Due  to  heavy  west  winds  and  to  the 
exposed  location  of  the  premises,  the  columns  near  the  middk 
of  the  structure  have  a  tendency  to  bulge  out  from  west  to 
east.  In  fact  three  lines  of  columns  have  been  pushed  out  of 
plumb  nearly  ^4  m-  m  this  direction.  Efforts  are  being  made 


1 84  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

by  the  iron  erectors  to  bring  these  columns  to  a  plumb  posi- 
tion by  means  of  cables  provided  with  turnbuckles. 

In  order  to  avoid  dangerous  consequences,  I  respectfully 
suggest  that  the  iron  contractor  be  notified  to  discontinue  the 
erection  of  any  iron  work  above  the  7th  tier,  until  the  floor 
arches  and  the  exterior  brick  walls  are  completed  up  to  and  in- 
cluding the  6th  tier. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

8.  Defective  work  is  about  to  be  covered  before  being 
fixed  as  required  by  law.    The  inspector  then  reports : 

Relative  to  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as  fol- 
lows: 

Unpainted  iron  beams  on  the  3rd  tier  rear  are  being  cov- 
ered up  with  brick  work,  same  being  contrary  to  law;,  and 
contrary  to  violation  3283  of  1913. 

I  respectfully  suggest  that  the  builder  be  notified  to  dis- 
continue laying  bricks  upon  unpainted  iron  and  to  remove  all 
brick  work  as  far  as  necessary  to  allow  for  painting. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

9.  After  the  completion  of  any  job  where  steel  work  has 
been  used,  the  iron  inspector  returns  his  copy  of  the  applica- 
tion or  permit  to  build,  and  attaches  to  it  a  report  like  this: 

New  Building.     APPLICATION  No.  327  of  1913. 
LOCATION  :    63  W.  H3rd  St. 
FINAL  REPORT  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  INSPECTOR. 

City  of  New  York,  April  i6th,  1913. 
TO  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  BUILDINGS: 

I  beg  to  report  that  the  work  described  in  the  above  en- 
titled application  was  completed  on  the  I4th  day  of  April, 
1913;  that  all  the  iron  and  steel  girders,  beams  and  columns 
are  of  the  size  shown  in  the  said  application  and  are  properly 
set ;  and  that  the  said  work  was  carefully  examined  by  me 
and  found  to  conform  in  all  other  respects  to  the  approved 
plans  and  specifications  and  to  the  Building  Code  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  except  as  follows : 

Viol.  7263  of  1913,  relative  to  omitting  rear  exterior  stair- 
way is  still  pending. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

10.  We  shall  close  this  series  of  reports  by  answering  the 
report  part  of  the  Civil  Service  examination  of  August,  1911. 
It  was  required  to  write  a  report  of  not  less  than  two  nor 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  185 

more  than  three  written  pages,  covering  the  progress  of  con- 
struction of  the  steel  frame  of  an  important  building  during 
a  month  and  including  several  matters  to  which  an  inspector 
might  properly  make  objection  and  others  requiring  positive 
condemnation.  The  report  may  be  wrritten  as  follows: 

The  Globe  Building. 
Report  for  the  Month  of  March,   1913. 

To  the  Chief  Engineer  of    the  International    Building  Con- 
struction Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

Dear  Sir: 

.Relative  to  the  above  premises  I  respectfully  report  as 
follows : 

Weather  conditions  during  the  past  month  have  been 
mostly  unfavorable  for  our  work.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  month  we  lost  four  days  due  to  rainstorms,  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  month  we  were  prevented  from  doing  work 
by  high  winds  and  snow.  In  short,  we  lost  one-third  of  the 
month  due  to  bad  weather. 

To  make  up  the  time  we  lost  in  this  way  it  was  necessary 
to  increase  the  Forces  employed.  The  number  of  riveting 
gangs  was  increased  from  5  to  7,  the  painting  gang  had  four 
men  instead  of  two,  and  the  remainder  of  the  erection  force 
was  increased  from  24  men  to  32  men.  In  addition  a  tem- 
porary man  was  assigned  to  the  duties  of  time-keeper,  our 
regular  time-keeper  being  sick  at  his  home. 

Deliveries.  During  the  month  the  steel  beams  for  ist, 
2nd,  3rd,  4th,  5th,  6th,  pth  and  loth  tiers,  marked  respectively 
tiers  A,B,C,D,E,F,J,K,  have  been  delivered ;  also  columns 
AB,  CD,  and  EF,  JK,  for  tiers  1-2;  3-4;  5-6  and  9-10  have 
been  received.  Beams  for  tiers  J  and  K  will  not  be  used  till 
the  middle  of  next  month  and  had  to  be  stored  up  on  the 
premises.  This  caused  unnecessary  rehandling  of  the  mate- 
rials and  the  structural  shop  has  been  notified  to  ship  in  the 
future  all  tiers  of  beams  strictly  in  order  of  erection  and  only 
upon  the  request  of  the'  iron  erector. 

Storage  of  Materials.  At  first  no  precaution  was  taken 
with  regard  to  beams  that  could  not  be  used  for  several  weeks. 
The  iron  erector  was  therefore  instructed  to  place  all  these 
beams  on  wooden  skids,  so  as  not  to  have  the  iron  in  contact 
Avith  the  ground ;  also  these  beams  were  placed  so  as  to  shed 
rain  water,  and  the  whole  pile  was  arranged  in  a  manner  to 
require  the  least  possible  handling  when  needed,  and  so  as  not 


1 86  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

to  interfere  with  the  traffic.  Red  lanterns  have  been  put  in 
at  night  at  each  end  of  the  steel  pile  upon  my  request,  in 
order  to  comply  with  the  city  ordinances. 

Materials  Rejected.  Following  is  a  complete  list  of  ma- 
terials rejected  during  the  month,  with  the  reasons  therefor 
and  the  final  action  taken  in  each  instance : 

March  2nd.  Four  kegs  of  ^4-inch  rivets,  rejected  for 
being  2  inches  long  instead  of  2^  inches  long.  The  kegs  have 
been  returned  to  the  contractor's  shop. 

March  5th.  Cast  iron  base  No.  24,  rejected  for  developing 
cracks  in  handling;  same  has  been  replaced  by  a  new  base 
on  March  loth. 

March  8th.  Two  hundred  tie  rods  rejected  for  being  y%- 
inch  diameter,  versus  34-inch  ;  same  have  been  replaced  by 
24-inch  rods  on  March  nth.- 

March  loth.  120  tie  rods  ^4-inch  diameter,  rejected  for 
being  too  long;  same  will  be  accepted  on  condition  that  the 
iron  erector  shall  provide  each  defective  tie  rod  at  each  end 
with  sufficient  packing  made  of  round  iron  washers. 

March  I4th.  Columns  JK  22  and  JK  36,  consisting  of 
plates  and  channels  riveted  together,  have  been  rejected  on 
account  of  having  rivets  spaced  8  inches  on  centres  instead 
of  6  inches.  This  case  has  been  referred  to  the  engineering 
department  for  consideration,  and  the  columns  are  stored  up 
on  the  job  pending  the  decision. 

March  2oth.  Two  barrels  of  red  paint  rejected;  on  this 
date  the  painters  ran  short  of  paint.  The  painting  foreman 
bought  in  the  open  market  the  above  two  barrels  of  paint. 
This  paint  consisted  chiefly  of  kerosene  mixed  with  a  red 
coloring  matter.  The  painter  was  ordered  to  remove  at  once 
the  two  barrels  from  the  premises,  before  any  of  this  paint  was 
used. 

Progress  of  the  Work.  In  spite  of  adverse  weather  con- 
ditions before  mentioned,  the  erection  work  was  fairly  satis- 
factory. During  the  month  there  have  been  erected  all  col- 
ujrms  AB,  CD,  EF,  for  tiers  i  to  6  inclusive  and  all  beams  up 
to  and  including  the  sixth  tier.  All  riveting  has  been  com- 
pleted, up  to  and  including  the  fourth  tier,  and  all  iron  work  up 
to  and  taking  in  the  third  tier  has  received  a  field  coat  of  paint. 
The  painting  was  delayed  for  several  days  in  compliance  with 
my  strict  orders  not  to  perform  any  painting  on  damp  days. 
The  derrick  is  now  on  the  sixth  tier,  ready  to  set  up  the  next 
row  of  columns.  The  brick  work  is  up  on  the  second  tier, 
and  floor  arches  on  the  third  tier  have  been  completely  filled  in. 

Workmanship  was  generally  satisfactory.  Two  riveting 
gangs  persisting  in  doing  careless  work  have  been  discharged 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  187 

on  the  3rd  of  March,  and  replaced  by  satisfactory  men. 
Painting  was  done  on  dry,  clear  days  only,  and  all  iron  work 
was  carefully  cleaned  with  a  wire  brush  before  the  paint  was 
applied. 

Accidents  during  the  month  happened  twice,  but  without 
serious  consequences.  On  March  loth  John  Clarke,  a  riveter, 
failed  to  catch  a  red  hot  rivet  while  riveting  on  the  fifth 
floor.  The  rivet  fell  in  the  street  and  badly  injured  a  horse. 
On  March  2oth  Jim  Carrey,  a  fitter,  dropped  a  tie  rod  from  the 
sixth  floor  through  the  skylight  of  an  adjoining  building  on  the 
west  side.  Both  accidents  have  been  reported  to  the  main 
office  in  the  same  days  when  they  took  place  respectively. 

In  conclusion,  I  may  state  that  the  condition  of  the  work 
in  general  is  satisfactory.  Considering  the  fact  that  the  field 
force  is  well  organized  at  present,  and  with  the  expectation 
that  the  weather  during  April  will  be  better  than  during 
March,  I  earnestly  hope  for  a  much  better  progress  during  the 
coming  month. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

JOHN  NEWTON, 
Inspector  Iron  and  Steel  Construction. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

Following  are  the  questions  asked  at  previous  examina- 
tions for  Inspector  of  Iron  and  Steel  Construction. 

FIRST   PAPER— QUESTIONS. 
Technical. 

1.  How  should  specimens  for  testing  be  chosen  and  pre- 
pared to  fairly  show  the  quality  of   (a)    wrought  iron ;   (b) 
cast-iron? 

2.  What  conditions  or  quality  of  material  or  manufac- 
ture are  indicated  by  the  following  tensile  test  results :     (a) 
Elastic  limit  38,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch  and  ultimate  strength 
45,000   Ibs.   per   sq.   in.?      (b)    Ultimate   strength   80,000   Ibs. 
elongation  in  8  inches   io%?     (c)    Ultimate   strength  80,000 
Ibs.  elongation  in  8  inches  25%?     (d)  Ultimate  strength  56,- 
ooo  Ibs.  elongation  in  8  inches  35%? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  each  of  the  following  tests  of 
wrought-steel :     (a)  cold  bend ;  (b)  hot  bend ;  (c)  quench  and 
bend;  (d)  drift? 

4.  (a)   Describe  all  the  necessary  details  of  surface  ex- 
amination of  material,     (b)  State  defects  likely  to  be  found  in 
both  steel  and  and  cast  iron. 

5.  What  is   (a)    "piping" ;    (b)    "burning" ;    (c)    how  do 
you  inspect  to  discover  them? 

6.  How  are   sections  of  the   following  forms   checked : 
(a)  Angles;  (b)  Ts;  (c)  Wide  sheared  plates? 

7.  What  are  the  essential  points  to  be  inspected  about 
the  following  processes:  (a)  punching;  (b)  assembling? 

8.  (a)  The  same  with  riveting;  (b)  how  are  loose  rivets 
made  to  seem  tight  under  a  hammer  test ;  (c)  how  would  you 
know  deceit  was  practiced? 

9.  State  all  the  details  to  be  inspected  of  a  girder  of  a 
finished  plate-girder  bridge  span. 

10.  Same  of  a  finished  post  for  a  pin-connected  span. 

11.  How  would  you  check  the  field  connections  of  (a) 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  189 

a  skewed  portal;  (b)   a  lattice  girder  of  which  members  are 
shipped  separately? 

12.  What  are  the  important  points  to  be  inspected  about 
painting  to  secure  thorough  preservation  from  rust. 

13.  Describe   details   of   inspection   of   all    parts    of    a 
stringer  floor-beam  connection. 

14.  In  first-class  work  what  variations  are  allowable  in 
the  following:     (a)  Pin  and  pinhole  connection;  (b)  riveted 
connection;  (c)  length  of  stringer;  (d)  length  of  floor  beam; 
(e)  length  of  eyebar;  how  should  the  last  be  measured. 

15.  How  should  a  16  in  x  y§  in.  mill-plate  30  ft.  long 
bowed  in  plans  of  its  width   (not  buckled)   be  straightened ; 
how  if  buckled? 

Arithmetic. 

1.  The  dimensions  of  the  area  of  a  test  piece  are  1.015  in. 
x  .637  in.    The  testing  machine  shows  elastic  limit  22,080  Ibs. 
and  ultimate  strength  40,250  Ibs.    The  reduced  area  is  .843  in. 
x  .421  in.,  and  the  elongation  in  8  in.  is  2.84  in. :     (a)  What  are 
the  elastic  limit  and  ultimate  strength  in  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch ; 
(b)  what  is  the  per  cent,  of  reduction  of  area,  and  (c)  what  is 
the  per  cent,  of  elongation? 

2.  How  much  heavier  is  a  6  in.  round  bar  than  a  2  in. 
round  bar,  each  i  foot  long?  (Allow  .26  1/3  Ibs.  to  a  cubic 
inch.) 

3.  The  total  weight  of  a  steel  viaduct  is  563  tons  478  Ibs. 
and  2/5  is  girders,  1/3  is  columns,  1/9  is  bases,  and  the  balance 
miscellaneous  rods,  etc.    How  much  does  each  class  of  mem- 
bers weigh  ? 

4.  A  plate  12  in.  x  24  in.  has  a  ^  in.  rivet  hole  punched 
in  it.    What  per  cent,  of  section  is  removed? 

SECOND  PAPER— QUESTIONS. 

Technical— Weight  5. 

Date,  June  30,  1911. 

To  be  finished  by  one  o'clock,  June  30,  1911. 

1.  State   briefly   the   difference   between    cast   iron   and 
structural   steel  as  to  the  method  of  manufacture,   use  and 
general  characteristics. 

2.  If  punched  holes  through  two  pieces  of  steel  fail  to 
match  by  *4  inch,  what  should  be  done  and  what  method  of 
correction  should  not  be  followed. 


190  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

3.  What  are  the  usual  defects  found  in  I  beams  indicat- 
ing poor  material  or  rolling? 

4.  For  what  reasons  would  you  reject  steel  rods  to  be 
used  to  reinforce  concrete? 

5.  What   are   the   requirements   as   to    separators    used 
between  (a)  I  beams  in  a  grillage ;  (b)  between  double  beams 
or  channels? 

6.  If  a  column  is  not  faced  square  what  should  be  done? 

7.  Show    by    sketches,    with    dimensions,    the    standard 
connections  for  4-inch,  12-inch  and  24-inch  I  beams. 

8.  (a)   How  should  holes  for  tie  rods  be  spaced?     (b) 
For  what  reasons  would  you  reject  tie  rods? 

9.  W7hat  inspections  should  be  made  of  cast  iron  col- 
umns, (a)  before  being  set  and  (b)  as  tier  above  tier  is  set. 

10.  How  is  a  rivet  caulked  and  why  should  such  a  rivet 
be  cut  out  and  replaced? 

i.     What  should  be  the  inspection  in  order  to  get  the 
best  character  of  bolted  work? 

12.  How  would  you  determine  if  a  floor  of  a  building 
was  being  overloaded  by  materials  of  construction  stored  on 
it? 

13.  How  should  column  bases  be  set? 

14.  (a)    What   is   the   difference   in     meaning    between 
"plumb"  and  "perpendicular"?     (b)  What  is  the  meaning  of 
the  term   "coped"  as  applied  to  beams  and  channels?     (c) 
What  is  "grout"?  (d)  "lintel"? 

15.  How  should  an  inspector  determine  that  a  cast  iron 
column  is  of  uniform  thickness? 


Mathematics — Weight  i. 

The  following  Mathematics  and  report  are  to  be  finished 
by  4  o'clock. 

1.  Add  together  46.75  feet,  12  feet  4  inches,  39  inches,  7 
feet  6  inches;  divide  the  result  by  17  and  show  the  answer  in 
feet  and  inches. 

2.  Add   together   3   feet  6l/2    inches,    7^     inches, 
inches,  n  feet  9%  inches;  from  the  result  subtract  9  feet 
inches. 

3.  How  many  square  yards  of  roof  surface  are  there  in 
a  flat  roof  36  feet  6  inches  by  108  feet  4  inches. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  191 

Report — Weight  2. 

Write  a  report  of  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  three 
pages  covering  the  progress  of  construction  of  the  steel  frame 
of  an  important  building  during  a  month  and  including  sev- 
eral matters  to  which  an  inspector  might  properly  make  ob- 
jection and  others  requiring  positive  condemnation. 

Following  is  one  set  of  Answers  to  previous  questions. 

FIRST  PAPER— ANSWERS. 
Technical. 

i.  (a)  Specimens  for  testing  the  qualities  of  wrought 
iron  are  cut  from  the  full  size  bars  or  plates  after  rolling.  Re- 
produce here  Fig.  8,  page  23,  and  its  explanation.  This  piece 
is  used  for  determining  the  tensile  strength,  elastic  limit, 
ductility  and  ultimate  strength. 

1.  (b)  Specimens  for  testing  the  qualities  of  cast  iron  in 
bending  are  generally  square  or  rectangular  in  cross  section, 
say  i  in.  x  i  in.  or  3  in  x  i  in.  and  either  14  in.  or  26  in.  long. 
These  specimens  are  poured  one  before  and  one  after  the  main 
casting  is  poured.     For  more  close  results  several  bars  are 
tested  and  final  averages  are  figured  out.    There  should  be  at 
least  one  test  bar  for  each  ton  of  castings. 

To  test  the  cast  iron  in  tension  bars  about  18  in.  long  are 
used.  These  are  turned  down  in  a  lathe  in  order  to  remove 
surface  scale  and  to  make  possible  a  more  accurate  measure- 
ment of  the  diameter  of  the  bar.  The  turned  part  of  the  bar  is 
divided  into  inches  by  means  of  a  pointer,  just  as  shown  for 
steel  specimens  in  the  figure  before  mentioned. 

2.  (a)  This  specimen  shows  a  high  elastic  limit  and  a  low 
ultimate  strength,  usually  found  in  material  that  has  been 
sheared  or  punched  and  not  annealed. 

2.  (b)  This  material  is  high  carbon  steel. 

2.  (c)  This  material  is  rolled  nickel  steel  containing 
about  three  per  cent,  nickel.  Mention  properties  of  nickel 
steel  as  given  on  page  21.  Shows  high  tensile  strength  and 
high  ductility. 

2.  (d)  This  material  is  soft  steel,  also  called  rivet  steel 
from  its  extensive  use  for  rivets. 

3.  (a)  To  determine  whether  the  specimen  is  cold-short, 
or  high  in  phosphorus. 

3.  (b)  To  determine  whether  the  specimen  is  red-short, 
or  high  in  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  other  impurities. 


192  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

3.  (c)  To  determine  whether  the  specimen  will  stand 
hardening. 

3.  (d)  To  determine  how  much  a  rivet  hole  could  be  en- 
larged by  means  of  a  drift  pin  or  under  similar  conditions 
without  fracturing  the  material. 

For  methods  of  performing  these  tests  see  page  23. 

4.  (a)   In  surface  examinations  the  material  should  be 
examined  as  to  color,  grain,  hardness  and  defects  due  to  roll- 
ing or  casting. 

4.  (b)   Surface  defects  for  steel  are :     Blow-holes,  burn- 
ing, cinder  spots,  cobbles,  cracks,  laps  or  laminations,  pipes, 
pits,  seams  and  snakes.     Explain  each  term  as  on  pages  21 
and  22. 

Surface  defects  for  cast  iron  are :  Blister,  cold  shuts, 
scales,  swells  and  warpings. 

5.  (a)  Piping.    See  page  21. 
5.     (b)  Burning.     See  page  21. 

5.  (c)  See  page  21. 

6.  (a)  To  check  the  size  of  an  angle  measure  the  outside 
width  of  each  leg  and  the  thickness. 

6.  (b)  To  check  the  size  of  a  T  iron  measure  the  width 
of  the  flange  and  the  total  height  or  depth  of  the  T  section; 
or  else,  whenever  convenient  weigh  one  of  the  shorter  bars. 

6.  (c)   To  check  the  size  of  plates  measure  the  width  ; 
then  determine  the  exact  thickness  by  using  a  measuring  de- 
vice known  as  calipers. 

7.  (a)  The  edges  of  the  punch-dies  must  be  sharp  and 
unbroken.     The  dies  must  be  of  the  required  diameter.     The 
difference  between  the  upper  and  lower  die  should  not  exceed 
1/16  in.     All  holes  must  be  punched  exactly  where  marked. 
See  also  page  28. 

7.  (b)   Correct  shapes,  sizes  and  thickness  must  be  as- 
sembled together.     All  holes  must  match  exactly.     The  sizes 
and  spacing  of  holes  must  agree  with  the  plans. 

8.  (a)  See  page  41  under :    Testing  Rivets. 
8.     (b)  See  page  40. 

8.  (c)   Examine  the  rivet  head  for  caulking  marks ;  in- 
spect the  plate  for  ridges  that  may  be  due  to  the  use  of  the 
snap,  when  used  so  as  to  cut  the  plate  and  crowd  the  plate 
metal  against  the  rivet  head.    See  also  pages  29  and  41. 

9.  To  see  that  correct  shapes  and  thickness  are  used. 
The  web  of  the  plate  girder  should  not  project  above  the 

flange  angles. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  193 

The  girder  must  be  straight  and  free  from  twists  or  bends. 

Stiffeners  to  be  milled  and  to  bear  tight  on  top  and  bot- 
tom flange  angles. 

All  rivets  must  be  tight. 

The  number,  diameter  and  spacing  of  field  holes  must 
agree  with  those  shown  on  plans. 

Web  where  spliced,  must  be  made  tightly  close. 

All  the  dimensions,  including  the  spacing  of  the  stiffen- 
ness,  and  the  overall  length  and  depth  of  the  girder,  must  be 
correct. 

10.  To  see  that  correct  shapes  and  thickness  are  used. 
All  parts  including  the  lattice  bars,  must  be  straight. 
All  abutting  surfaces  must  be  made  tightly  close. 

All  rivets  must  be  tight. 

The  pin  holes  must  be  bored  exactly  at  right  angles  to 
the  length  of  the  post. 

The  distance  from  centre  to  centre  of  pin  holes,  the  dia- 
meter of  the  pin  hole,  and  all  other  dimensions  must  be  cor- 
rect. 

11.  (a)    For  skewed  connections  try  them  on  a  wood 
template.     This  is  a  board  with  holes  drilled  in  accordance 
with  the  drawings.    Apply  the  template  to  one  member,  then 
to  the  other,  while  in  the  shop  and  see  that  holes  in  the  two 
members  match  with  the  holes  in  the  template. 

11.  (b)  Assemble  the  girder  in  the  shop  using  tempor- 
ary bolts,  and  before  shipping. 

12.  See  page  52.     Painting. 

13.  See  that  all  holes  are  of  the  required  diameter. 

See  that  the  required  number  of  rivets  has  been  provided 
in  shop  made  connections. 

See  that  the  rivet  heads  are  countersunk  or  chipped 
wherever  so  shown  on  the  plans. 

The  holes  must  match  exactly;  all  holes  which  do  not 
match  should  be  reamed  out. 

Rivets  of  sufficient  length  should  be  used. 

Surfaces  inaccessible  after  erection  should  be  painted 
one  field  coat  of  good  paint  before  erection. 

14.  (a)  Pins  less  than  5  in.  diam.  should  not  be  smaller 
than  the  pinhole  by  more  than  1/50  of  an  inch ;  pins  over  5  in. 
diam.  should  not  be  smaller  than  the  pinhole  by  more  than 
1/32  of  an  inch. 

14.  (b)  Holes  in  riveted  connections  should  match  ex- 
actly. 

14  (c)  A  stringer  should  not  be  shorter  than  its  figured 
length  by  more  than  1/16  of  an  inch. 


i94  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

14.  (d)  Floor  beams  framing  in  between  posts  may  be 
1/16  to  y%  of  an  inch  shorter. 

14.  e)  Eye  bars  25  feet  long  or  less  may  vary  in  length 
1/16  inch.     Also  an  additional  1/16  of  an  inch  for  every  ad- 
ditional 25  feet  in  length. 

To  measure  the  exact  length  of  an  eye  bar  first  find  the 
distance  between  the  outer  edges  of  pinholes,  then  the  dis- 
tance between  their  inner  edges.  One  half  the  sum  of  these 
two  lengths  is  the  correct  length  of  the  eye  bar  from  centre 
to  centre  of  pinholes. 

15.  The  method   used   depends   on   the  amount  of  the 
bend.    Small  bends  are  straightened  by  means  of  blows  from 
a  sledge  hammer.    This  is  especially  the  case  with  plates  bent 
in  their  length  or  buckled. 

Plates  bowed  in  their  width  can  be  straightened  out  in 
the  same  manner,  or  else  they  may  be  passed  through  a 
straightening  machine. 

Arithmetic. 

I.     (a)  Elastic  Limit  =34180;  ultimate  strength  =  62300. 
I.     (b)  Per  cent,  reduction  of  area  =  45.1. 

1.  (c)  Per  cent,  elongation  =  35.5. 

2.  6  in.  round  per  foot  weighs  88.328  Ibs. 
2  in.  round  per  foot  weighs  8.682  Ibs. 

Difference  79.646  Ibs. 

3.  Girders  weigh  =450591.2  Ibs. 
Columns  weigh  =  375492.7  Ibs. 
Bases  weigh  =125164.2  Ibs. 
Miscellaneous  =  175229.9  Ibs. 

Total  =  1126478.0  Ibs. 
A.     Ans.  7.29  per  cent. 

SECOND  PAPER— ANSWERS. 

Technical. 

1.  Give  definition,  manufacture,  properties,  advantages. 
and  disadvantages  of  Cast  Iron  and  Steel  as  given  in  Chapter 
III.,  pages  12  and  19. 

2.  Punched  holes  failing  to  match  by  *4  inch  should  be 
reamed  out.    A  drift  pin  should  not  be  used  for  making  holes 
to  match.     See  also  Fitting  Connections  on  page  32. 

3.  For  surface  defects  due  to  poor  material  and  defective 
rolling  see  Answer  to  question  4,  First  paper.     Bad  material 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  195 

is  also  shown  by  unsatisfactory  appearance  of  the  fracture. 
Give  characteristics  of  bad  fracture  as  given  on  page  20. 

4.  The  rods  may  be  too  short,  too  long,  of  smaller  cross- 
section,  covered  with  rust  or  scales,  badly  twisted  or  bent, 
The  material  may  be  cold  short  or  red  short  iron,  or  it  may 
lack  ductility  and  the  required  tensile  resistance. 

5.  All  separators  must  be  not  further  apart  than  five 
feet  on  centres.     Beams  and  channels   12  inches    and    over 
should    have   two   bolts    in    each    separator.      See    Sec.    117, 
Building  Code,  page  142. 

Separators  in  grillage  beams  are  made  of  gas  pipes  and 
bolts.  Separators  for  beams  or  channels  in  walls  are  either 
made  in  the  same  manner  or  else  they  are  cast  iron  separators 
with  iron  bolts.  See  also  page  59. 

6.  Return  the  column  to  the  shop  and  have  it  remilled. 
Then,  if  the  column  is  too  short,  use  a  butt  plate.    In  very  bad 
cases  reject  the  column. 

7.  See  Fig.  33  on  page  98. 

Sa.  Tie  rods  should  be  spaced  at  distances  not  exceed- 
ing eight  times  the  depth  of  the  beams;  also  not  exceeding 
eight  feet.  See  Sec.  170,  Building  Code,  page  143. 

8b.  Tie  rods  should  be  rejected  when  too  short,  too 
long,  bent,  of  lighter  cross  section  than  specified  on  plans,  or 
with  insufficient  bolt  threads  on  either  end. 

Tie  rods  are  usually  %  m>  rounds ;  when  too  long  the  ex- 
cess length  may  be  remedied  by  using  washers  as  packing. 

o,a.  Before  setting  examine  the  cast  iron  columns  as  to 
quality  of  metal  (see  pages  84-88)  and  as  to  diameter  or 
width,  thickness,  length  and  correct  lugs,  seats  and  flanges. 

9b.  After  setting  see  that  all  columns  are  made  plumb, 
and  that  all  bolts  are  put  in.  See  that  all  columns  bear  evenly 
at  flanges,  and  that  none  have  been  cracked  during  erection. 
See  that  columns  of  various  tiers  are  not  interchanged  in 
setting. 

10.     See  page  28  under  Caulking. 

IT.  All  holes  of  parts  to  be  connected  by  bolts  should 
be  drilled  in  the  shop  and  made  to  match  with  the  same  tem- 
plate. For  very  good  work  use  turned  bolts.  Turned  bolts  in 
reamed  holes  are  often  considered  as  being  equivalent  to 
rivets. 

12.  Overloading  of  a  floor  may  be  determined  by  sight 
examination  or  by  computations.  In  the  first  case  notice  the 
amount  of  deflection  of  the  floor.  Also  examine  the  under- 


196  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

neath  or  the  soffit  for  cracks  or  other  indications  of  weakness. 
A  more  definite  way  is  to  figure  out  the  load  approximate- 
ly. Then  compare  the  load  carried  by  any  one  beam  with  the 
maximum  safe  capacity  of  that  beam  as  given  in  tables  IX.- 
XVI.,  in  Part  III. 

13.  See  page  86.     Setting  cast  iron  bases. 

14.  (a)  Plumb  means  vertical  or  in  the  direction  of  the 
plumb  line. 

Perpendicular.  A  line  is  perpendicular  to  another  line 
when  the  two  lines  cross  each  other  and  form  equal  angles 
at  their  crossing. 

14.  (b)  Coped.  When  a  beam  or  a  channel  must  frame 
into  another  beam  or  channel  and  the  flanges  of  the  two  inter- 
fere by  preventing  the  webs  from  coming  close  together,  then 
the  flange  of  the  lighter  beam  is  cut  in  the  shop  for  a  suffi- 
cient distance  from  the  end  to  allow  of  proper  framing.  This 
operation  is  known  as  "coping"  and  the  flange  of  the  beam  is 
"coped." 

14.  (c)  Grout  is  a  mixture  of  cement  and  sand,  with 
sufficient  water  added  to  cause  the  mixture  to  flow  easily. 
It  is  used  in  place  of  brick  or  concrete  in  open  spaces  in  walls 
or  in  between  grillage  beams,  where  masons  can  not  get  in. 
Grout  solidifies  just  like  mortar  by  setting. 

14.  (d)   Lintel  is  any  horizontal  beam  resting  on  two 
vertical  supports,  i.  e.,  Stone  or  iron  lintels  used  in  brick 
work  over  window  openings. 

15.  See  page  88  under  Eccentricity. 

Arithmetic. 

Question  i.     Ans.  4  feet  i  5/17  inches. 

Question  2.     Ans.  7  feet  8^4  inches. 

Question  3.     Ans.  3954  1/6  sq.  ft.  or  439  19/54  sq.  yards. 

Report.     See  page  185. 


Erection  and  Inspection  of  Iron 
and   Steel  Constructions 

PART  III 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


Explanation  of   Tables. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

The  following  tables  have  been  added  to  this  volume  in 
order  to  form  a  ready  reference  for  the  inspectors  and  builders 
while  in  the  field.  Some  of  these  tables  are  entirely  in- 
dispensable for  the  inspector  in  checking  up  the  sizes  of 
various  steel  beams  or  columns.  Other  tables  may  be  used 
advantageously  in  investigating  floor  framings  in  cases  of 
overloading,  and  under  many  other  conditions. 

The  material  in  some  of  these  tables  has  been  compiled 
by  the  author  from  various  tables  in  common  use  at  the 
present  time.  Many  good  tables  are  found  in  the  mill  books 
issued  by  the  various  rolling  mills,  like  the  Carnegie  Steel 
Company,  the  Cambria  Steel  Company,  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Company,  and  so  on.  The  author  believes,  however,  that 
the  tables  contained  in  this  volume  will  be  found  sufficient 
for  all  field  purposes. 

Of  course,  the  various  tables  in  existence  have  been 
carefully  compared,  and  the  doubtful  figures  recomputed. 
All  the  tables  have  been  rearranged,  most  of  them  have  been 
extended  in  order  to  make  them  more  useful  for  field  uses, 
and  several  of  the  tables  are  entirely  original. 

In  considering  them  in  order,  wew  shall  point  out 
a  few  of  the  many  ways  in  which  these  tables  can  be  used 
in  inspecting  iron  and  steel  constructions. 

Table  I.  Wire  and  Sheet  Metal  Gauges.  A  "wire 
gauge"  is  a  method  of  indicating  the  diameter  of  wires  or 
the  thickness  of  sheets  of  metal  by  referring  to  the  numbers 
of  a  table  arranged  on  a  certain  fixed  and  arbitrary  basis. 

There  are  at  present  at  least  ten  different  wire  gauges, 
resulting  in  great  confusion.  The  most  important  gauges  in 
use  in  this  country  are  as  follows : 

The  United  States  Standard  Steel  Plate  Gauge,  which 
is  the  only  legal  gauge  in  this  country.  It  is  given  in  the 
fourth  column  of  the  table,  and  is  mostly  used  by  the  manu- 
facturers of  sheet  iron,  steel  and  tin-plate. 

The  Brown  &  Sharpe  guage  is  given  in  the  second 
column  of  the  table,  and  is  commonly  used  for  copper  wires, 
sheet  copper,  brass,  and  sheet  iron  or  steel,  i.  e.,  by 
special  order  of  the  Bureau  of  Buildings  all  outside 


202  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

metal  smoke  flues  in  Manhattan  must  be  made  of  galvanized 
sheet  steel,  not  less  than  No.  8  B.  &  S.  gauge  in  thickness. 
According  to  the  table,  this  would  mean  a  thickness  equal  to 
.128490,  or  a  little  over  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  Similarly,  the 
metal  used  in  making  iron  treads  and  risers  for  interior 
stairways  is  often  specified  to  be  of  No.  12  gauge.  With 
poor  supervision  this  would  be  replaced  by  sheet  metal  No.  16 
gauge. 

To  determine  gauges  in  the  field,  either  one  of  these 
methods  may  be  used : 

(a)  By  means  of  a  gauge  ring.     This  consists  of  a  cir- 
cular metal  plate  with  indentations  all  around  the  outer  edge. 
The  indentations  are  made  to  correspond  with  the  diameters 
of  the  various  wire  gauge  numbers. 

(b)  By  weighing  any  convenient  portion  of  the  sheet 
metal,  say,  several  square  feet.     The  weight  per  square  foot 
for  steel  plates  corresponding  to  the  various  gauge  numbers 
will  be  found  in  the  third  column  of  the  table. 

(c)  The  gauge  numbers  are  generally  painted   on  the 
original  plates  by  the  manufacturers. 

Table  II.     Shearing  and  Bearing  Value  of  Rivets. 

The  values  given  in  this  table  are  safe  values,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  New  York  Building  Code.  Single  shear  is 
figured  at  10,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  As  the  ultimate 
shearing  strength  for  steel  is  about  50,000  pounds  per  square 
inch,  it  follows  that  good  rivets  will  stand  in  shear  before 
failing  about  five  times  as  much  as  given  in  the  table. 

The  shearing  resistance  of  a  rivet  in  double  shear  is 
just  twice  the  value  for  single  shear  given  in  the  fourth 
column. 

Table   III.     Length   of   Rivets   for   Various   Grips. 

In  this  table  the  length  of  the  rivet  is  taken  to  mean 
the  distance  from  under  the  head  of  the  cold  rivet  to  the 
free  end  of  the  shank.  This  is  the  common  meaning  of 
the  length  of  a  rivet  or  bolt  and  is  illustrated  on  top  of  the 
table. 

Table  IV.  Properties  of  American  Standard  and  Special 
I-Beams. 

This  table  gives  the  depth,  weight  and  area  of  American 
sections.  The  thickness  of  the  web  is  also  given.  Column 
five  gives  the  width  across  the  top  of  the  beam  or  the  width 
of  the  flange. 

Checking  Sizes.  The  figures  in  column  five  are  used  in 
determining  the  weight  of  a  beam.  For  instance,  a  24  in.  I 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  203 

weighs  80  pounds  per  foot  when  it  measures  7  in.  across  the 
flange;  or  it  weighs  100  pounds  per  foot  when  the  width 
across  the  flange  is  7.25  in.  As  ari  additional  check  compare 
also  the  thicknesses  of  the  webs,  as  given  in  column  four. 

Moment  of  Inertion.  Consider  an  I-beam  section  as 
shown  at  the  bottom  of  Table  V.  Draw  this  section  for  any 
one  I-beam  in  full  size.  Then  divide  the  section  into,  say, 
twenty  equal  parts.  Then  draw  line  AA.  Now  multiply  the 
area  of  each  part  by  the  square  of  the  distance  between  the 
centre  of  such  part  and  the  line  AA.  You  will  get  twenty 
products.  Their  sum  is  an  approximate  value  of  the  Moment 
of  Inertia  of  that  particular  section  and  will  not  be  far  from 
the  values  given  for  each  section  in  column  six.  The  line 
AA  is  called  the  Neutral  Axis  at  right  angles  to  the  web. 
The  line  BB  is  another  neutral  axis,  but  parallel  to  the  web. 

The  Moment  of  Inertia  of  a  section  is  the  algebraic  sum 
of  all  the  products  obtained  by  multiplying  each  small  particle 
of  the  area  of  the  section  by  the  square  of  its  distance  from 
the  neutral  axis. 

The  moments  of  inertia  for  various  sections  with  reference 
to  axes  AA  and  BB  are  given  in  columns  6  and  7  under  I 
and  I'  respectively. 

Radius  of  Gyration.  Divide  the  moment  of  inertia  by 
the  area  in  square  inches.  The  square  root  of  the  number 
thus  found  is  called  the  radius  of  gyration. 

The  radius  of  gyration  for  various  sections  are  given  in 
columns  8  and  9. 

Section  Modulus.  Divide  the  moment  of  inertia  by  one- 
half  the  depth  of  the  section  in  inches.  The  result  is  the 
section  modulus. 

Section  moduli  for  various  beams  are  given  in  column  10. 
This  is  the  more  used  section  modulus,  or  the  one  about  the 
axis  AA. 

Table  V.  Properties  of  American  Standard  and  Special 
Channels.  The  arrangement  of  this  table  is  similar  to  that  of 
Table  IV.,  and  no  further  explanation  is  deemed  necessary. 

Table  VI.    Properties  of  Standard  and  Special  Angles. 

This  table  gives  the  size,  weight  and  area  as  well  as  other 
properties  of  angles  with  equal  legs.  Column  4  gives  the 
distance  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  angle  to  the  back  of 
the  flange.  The  moments  of  inertia,  section  moduli  and  radii 
of  gyration  about  two  axes  are  given.  These  axes  are  shown 
in  the  diagrams  as  AA  and  BB. 

For  a  list  of  common  angles  with  unequal  legs  see  Table 
XIV. 


204  ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 

Table  VII.  Properties  of  Bethlehem  I-Beams  and  Beth- 
lehem Girder  Beams. 

These  sections  are  rolled  by  the  Grey  Mills  at  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  and  represent  some  of  the  latest  improvements  in  rolled 
sections.  Bethlehem  sections  have  been  in  use  in  this  country 
since  about  1908,  and  their  use  in  buildings  is  constantly  in- 
creasing. The  beams  and  girders  have  wide  and  heavy  flanges 
as  shown  approximately  in  the  figures  at  the  bottom  of  Table 
VII.  All  flanges  of  both  beam  and  girder  sections  have  a  uni- 
form bevel  of  9  per  cent.  Bethlehem  shapes  may  vary  in 
weight  up  to  2.^/2  per  cent,  from  the  weight  given  in  this  table. 

Bethlehem  beams  are  more  economical  than  standard 
beams,  on  account  of  a  better  distribution  of  the  metal  in 
the  section.  In  column  II  is  given  the  equivalent  standard 
beam  or  beams  which  have  about  the  same  carrying  capacity 
as  the  corresponding  Bethlehem  sections. 

Table  VIII.     Properties  of  Bethlehem  H  Columns. 

These  columns  have  an  H  shaped  section  with  a  uniform 
flange  slope  of  2  per  cent.  H  columns  may  vary  in  weight 
up  to  2.y2  per  cent,  from  the  nominal  section. 

H  columns  are  often  used  in  buildings  of  moderate 
heights.  They  give  a  stronger  job  than  built-up  sections, 
require  little  shop  work,  and  hence  they  save  in  costs.  For 
very  tall  buildings,  however,  the  columns  required  for  the 
lower  stones  become  too  heavy  to  be  punched  in  the  flanges, 
and  drilling  must  be  resorted  to.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  Bethlehem  H  sections  are  not  used  in  very  tall  buildings. 

Tables  IX.  to  XIV.     Safe  Loads  Uniformly  Distributed. 

These  tables  give  the  safe  loads  uniformly  distributed 
on  standard  *and  special  I-beams,  channels,  and  angles  for 
usual  spans.  The  span  means  the  actual  unsupported  length, 
that  is,  the  clear  span.  The  loads  are  given  in  tons  of  2,000 
pounds. 

Concentrated  Loads. 

When  the  load  is  all  concentrated  at  the  middle  of  the 
span,  the  safe  carrying  capacity  of  the  beam  is  only  one-half 
the  value  given  in  the  tables  for  uniform  loads. 

Design  of  Beams.  The  safe  loads  in  these  tables  have 
been  figured  from  the  formula: 

Uniform  safe  loads  in  pounds  =  8  KI  -=-  Id 
where  K  •=.  maximum  allowable  fibre  stress  per  sq.  inch,  and 
which  was  taken  at  16,000  pounds  per  sq.  in.  for  steel. 

I  =  Moment  of  Inertia  as  defined  for  Table  IV. 

1  =  span  in  inches, 
and  d  =  one-half  the  depth  of  the  beam  in  inches. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS  205 

Table  XV.     Safe  Loads  on  Channels  Set  Flatwise. 

Channels  set  flatwise  are  often  used  as  lintels.  The 
strength  of  such  channels  is  comparatively  small  even  with 
the  heavier  channel  sections.  The  values  in  these  tables  have 
been  figured  in  a  similar  way  as  for  Table  IX. 

Table  XVI.     Safe  Loads  for  Cast-iron  Columns. 
This  table  has  been  figured  by  the  author  from  the  for- 
mula : 

Safe  load  per  sq.  inch  of  section  for  cast-iron  columns : 

—  11300  —  30- 
r 

where  1  =  unsupported  length  of  column  in  inches  and  r  — 
least  radius  of  gyration  (See  notes  on  table  IV.). 
For  steel  columns  the  formula  becomes : 
Safe  load  per  sq.  inch  of  section  for  steel  columns : 

1 

=  15200  --  58  - 
r 

These  formulae  are  in  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  the  New  York  Building  Code. 

For  steel  columns  —  should  not  exceed  120. 
r 

Table  XVII.    Standard  Shapes  Used  as  Struts. 

This  table  will  be  found  useful  in  the  field  in  checking 
the  unsupported  lengths  of  struts  in  exterior  stairways  and 
under  similar  circumstances. 

The  lengths  are  just  within  the  limit  of 
1  ^-  r  =  120. 

The  loads  are  figured  from  formula  given  in  Table  VI. 

Table  XVIII.     Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Tanks. 

By  formula : 

Capacity  in  cubic  feet  =  3.14  x  r  x  r  x  h 

where  r  =  radius  of  the  bottom  in  feet 

and  h  =  height  of  the  tank  in  feet. 
From  the  table: 

Get  the  capacity  in  gallons  for  one  foot  of  height  and 
multiply  by  the  height  in  feet. 

Tables  XIX.-XX.     Conversion  Tables. 

These  tables  are  self-explanatory. 


2O6 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


-g  -a 

JQJ  saqout  ui 
sseuipjqjj  -xoaddy 


'S  'a 


-g 


-bs   jad 


ao  uBoiaauiy 
jo 


3|S8 

50    £J    <M    rH 
\  \     \  \ 

»O   oj   t^   rH 


IO          >O 

sill 


SgqSSS 


si 


oo  t-  •*  oo 

•*    I—    rH    IO 
«2  L-5   W   ^ 


00000 


II 


'Q. 

aoj  seqoai  ui 
'xoaddy 


-g  Tl 


-g 


-be   aad 


jo 


oo  r^  a 

^  §  g  ^  S  SB  S  ?  ^  S  S  5S  S3. 1 

CO    d    d    Cl    oi   rH   rH   rH    rH   r-i   rH 


rHOOrHTtJl-OLOOlOrHOOlOC^Ol- 
O    ©    00    L—    SO    »O    IO    -f    ifl    CO    (M    (M    Ol    lM    <M    rH 

rnooooobooooooooo 


O   i-l   Cl    CO   •*   LO 
IM    (N    Cl    C-l    (N    Cl 


PJBPUB1S     'g     -fl 

joj  saqoui  m 
,  'xoaddy 


-1)8   jad 


-g  T$  -g 

s  JQJ 


jo 


^S|^^88^.$8|.StP 

rHO^WCOrH^^^nHJO^CO^rH^ 


g  £  1  g  §  8 

10  •*  ^  -^  co  co  co 


1C         O         W 
I—  IO  <M          I—  LO 

CO  t-  r-l  IO  OO  <N 
rH  00  CO  I-  rH  SO 
fOiHOCOL"-ir5 
C  <M  IM  iH  H  iH 


OOCOrHOQOCOT-IOOit-Cl 
I-  CD  00  <M_  I-  ^H  fO  CO  TtJ  IO  00  <M. 
00  SO  •*'  CO  r-i  O  OS  00  t^  SO  irf  irf 


S  5 1 1  8  85  3.  §3 

OOOOOOOrH^CC^ 
I-   O   IO   •<*!   CO  <M 


rH 

00 


C 

(M    W    O5    ?-! 

OiM^Ttl 

(M    rt<    OQ    rH 

SO    TfH    C-l    rH 


II 


O   O   <N 

ft  oo  fc 


-  II  II 
S?S 


a  it  9 

g  o3  5 

M       QJ       r/i 


•Ell 


3     -M     -M 

a  .a  ^3 

-^    iJD   SJD 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


207 


r-(     CJ     CO 
<N     W     01 


00  O  <N 

I—  »O  <N 

O  I-  0 

I—  00  OS 


I  § 


<$  t»  w  $  o   SH 

iH      iH     iH      i-l     (M      Cl 


I 1 II 1 II 

K}     C^     g     I-     j^     r-t     00 
CO     -*     »O     IQ     O     I-     00 


I-      1O     (M 


8  g  12 
S  £  § 


8  §  §  1  I 

P     t-     00     CO     OS 


II 
US 

TH      Cl 


iH     •«*     t-     O     CO 


£  $  8  § 


8  S 

^     00 

t-   t- 


CO      O      O5      Cl 
IO     IO.    1O     CO 


5  *    I- 

a   I    «   i    « 

02     02  X     S 


0  « 

Vi  "t 

1  -2 
S  .5 


*  10 


S  12  fe 

CO     CO     Oi 


208 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


TABLE  III.     LENGTH  OF   RIVETS   FOR   VARIOUS   GRIPS. 


These  lengths  include  the  amount  of  shank  necessary   to  form  one  head. 


<§ 


W LENGTH 


1 

Grip 
in   — 
inches 


234567 
Diameter  of  rivet  in  inches 


,% 


Grip 
in  - 
inches 


34567 
Diameter  of  rivet  in  inches 


7%      7y8 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


209 


O*3 

52 


0.5 


OCO       TjioCSrH        OOOC 
L~>~        (MJMClCO        T-iG-l', 


I  r-j  r-j  r-j        •<*  ffl  rH        CO  q  t>;       00  Tj«  tH        O  <T1  rj;  ?O       t-;  00  O5 
ilOCOl-       Or-i^i       t-^OCOO       -JHiOO       COCOCO'CO       i-ir-ir-i 


jsoooob-     co  WN 
qwBio     iOkqS 


•*^  T^COCOCO       COCOCO 

o'i—  cot^odoJ     loioot-     co-^'*"-^     cic<ico     r-5 
rtH 

COO  i-l(MTt<t- 


_...,    _._,_._.   ?5SJ3 

01  TH  rH       i-l  iH  iH  iH       T-i  r-i  rH 


)  O        CO  IO  iH  t- 

)r-(        CO  •*  CO  t- 


OOb-       W^t^       g105 

co'coco'     cococo     co'co'« 


COCOOO       W»OC 

eo  q  t-_  ia     ^j  T-J  c 
irf  «d  co  i-     •*'  »o  i 


oioo»o     o»oo     ci 

'  '  •  '    3^    S 


,3* 


SCO  rHOOO 
O  CO  CO  CO  C-J 


^eo?5S« 

o  >o  o  o  o 

(XCOL-rHlO 


. 

U?»OkOl£5»O»OlOlrfira»O>O»O>O       ^^ 


woqwco     t^oq^qqqoMooq^. 

»OrHr-ii-J        rH  10'  CO  iH  OS  O  CO  r-l  |rf  I-  IO  < 


210 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


O)   Si 

q  0> 

1.2 


r3«H 

£os  ~ 
&•    S"*"1 


q  os  00  so  LO     co  ox  10     qi-ori     osrHco     I-HC^ 

sdcO'l-GCCS        rHI~L~CO       CO  CO  rJH        rH  fl  M       rH  rH  rH 


1 1-  I  -  SO  CO        -t  CO  CO  CO        O  OS  OS        IO  IO  IO        rH  rH  IM 
2  IO  IO  IO  iS        IO  IO_  IO  IO        lOrHrH        rHrHrH        rHrHrH 


rH  (N  W  <N  C1       O  rH  CO  IO       rH  OS  rH       00  N  SO       SO  GO  rH 

dSJfcSSS     WioVoS     t-:ajq     co'rHrH     TH'IHW 


^(Mi^^(^^      I-HT-KM     i-nHrn      i-HrHrH 


i^^gs 


IO  O  ^  t—  rH   GT'  OS  Cl  SO   IO  IO  00   IO  rH  OO   OS  t—  SO 

GO  so  co  q  oq     55ooq»     osq^0.     ^.^^     TH  •*«•"• 

tilOlO        (NCOCOrp        rHM'cO        rHrHOi        rH  i-i  rH 


v^       v^       x^       %5^ 

GCOCOO       COOSrH       ioSOL- 


S5 


PH  ^ 


flC 
OJ  H 

I.S 


Hfl 


^  c.5^ 


t-;  t-;  CO  0  t-;  rH 

rH  C-i  CO  O  CO  l--^ 


<  t-  (M  SO  rH   IO  CO  1O  L-; 

O  rH  CO  IO 


rHqqqcs 

CC  Ci  O  rH  i-5 


rH  rH  Ci  OO  1--  t-   rH  GO  t—  CO  IO 
OS  OS  GO  GO  00  00   OC  t-;  t-;  L-  L-; 


lO'lOlo'lOlo'lO        rtirHrHr^rjJ        CO'cOCOcOCO       CO'co'cOCO        COM<M'(NC^ 


COI^OOrH  IO 
CO  IO  b-  O  (N 
rH  rH  rH  (M*  <N 


COGOCSOS<MC5       rHCOrHOCO       OlOOOSSD       t-lOLOOO 

GO  00  OS  O  rH  C-i   CO  rH  IO  IO  SO   iM'  C-i  CO  CO*  rH   r-i  rH  d  C^i 
i— 1  rH  rH 


OOlOrHt^W  HOI>COq  OSt-OMiO  COOSGOt-;  COOOSGOOO 

CJOl-^lO(M"O  GOrHrHOSl--  SO  GO  rH  CO  IO  t"-  O  O  O  ciso'cicOt^ 

rH(MrHt-OcO  MrHCOt-OS  SO  L—  OS  O  rH  rHIOSOt-  COCOCOrHrH 

COCOCOCOrHrH  rH  rH  T-H  rH  rH  rH  rH 


O  CO  <M  <N  OJ  W  rHIOb-OC<l  OrHOSrHGO 
rH  rH  IO  SO  I-  00  OS  O  rH  CO  rH  SO  l^  GO  O  rH 
O  CO  CO  COCO'  CO 


SO  IO  rH  CO  (M 
fl  CO  rH  IO  SO 


SrHrHSO       rH 


irH  IO 


a  %%%%£ 

SO  I-  00*  O  rH       rji  »o  t-  00  O 


IO  rH  OC  rH  i£ 

co  q  i-- 10  c^i 

CO  rH  rH  IO  SC 


)  C-t  CO  CO  rH        rH  C 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


211 


l-t—  t-t-£-CCOCOCCSCi       h-t-r-t—CConccGOClCi       CCCOOOceoCOOCJiCS       CC  CC  00  CC  Ci  Ci  Oi 
-          t-;  t-  L-  t-  t-;  t-  I-  t^  t-  I-       CO  CO  CO  CD  CD  Ci  CO  CO  CO  CO       >~  \~  \~  it  ,-  i  ~  iO  JO       rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  r»«  rH 

§Q  d©'d©*©dd©d©     do'©' ©do"  ©do©     odd©'©©©©'     ©d©  ©'©'©'© 

rH  "^        cj  CiCi©©Ci3CCD"0©JO       JOCCrH~rb-O©rHrHrH       CDrHCDO~ft'~©Cl        Ci  CD  CI  OCCO  00  C) 

0        ^CS       3       ^       rHrHrHrHrHrHHrHrH©       rH  rH  rHrH  rH  T-i  rH  ©'©  ©       ©©©'©d©©©       ©©'©©"©©© 

°  >»  ° 

,££  rH  -          C5COCO©COCMOO£jb-©  cOCCCOl-MCCoCOcOCi  Ci  CI  C1  CI  d  CI  rH  ©  CO  CM  CO  rH  IO  Ci  CM 

£  >>  j  *H       CO  rH  CJ  ©  I-  10  CM  ©  t-;  JO  rH  CJ  rH  C:  00  CC  iq  CO  r-j  C5  CI  rH  ©  Ci  00  b-;  CO  JO  JO  »O  rH  rH  CO  CI  CM 

0,03  CS  Co'co'co'^CiciCMCM'rHrH  CMcic-jrHrHrHrHrHrH©  r-irHrHod©©©  ©*©©©©©© 

'*$>  t-QOCiCiOrH^COCOrH       M  M  CO  JTCOl-t-CO  CC'Ci©        rHCMCO       C"  t-00 

75°        fl  rHrHrHrHrHrHrHT-irHrH       rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHr^rH       ©©©©©©©©       ©d©©©©©* 

Sg     a 

OrHrHrHOCib-JOlNCi  OiJOrHCOrHKjCiCI^GO  ©OClt-JOCOrHOO  ©  CO  JO  t-  OC  Ci  © 

3        tfl       CMCCCCOTjHrHCJt-iqCJ  COCMrHClCOCOrHCOr-iOi  rHCOrHOOiOOI>jq  OOl>COJOrHCOCO 

J^y       ,  CO*  CO  CM  CM  CJ  CM  rH  rH  rH  rH  ClCl*  ci  i-H  rHrH  rH  rH^  O  rH  rH  rH*  rH*  d  ©  ©  ©  ©  ©©©©©©' 

0) 

LO  tj        I— I        JO  rH  CO  rH  CO  rH  IO  C5  Ml  t-       l~  ~\  ~.  '—  :~  ~j  CO  CM  __    .         _  ... 

CC  GO*  t-*  t-  CO  CO*  JT5  rH  rH  CO*       »O*  JO*  rH  rH  rH  M  CO  fS  CJ  <N       Cl  CJ  CM*  C^*  rH  i-i  rH  rH       rHrHrH©"©©© 
M4 

+j    •      44 

.2^5d*Si3        CO  CM  CM  CM  OJ  CM  rH  rHrHrH       ^  ^  rH  rH  rH  ©  ©  O  © 
1        QO      S        «       rHrHrHrH^rHrHrHrH'rH       ,-*  rH  rH  rH*  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  ©       r-i©©©d©©© 

**  •*  CC  «-<  CO  JO  JO  JO  rH  rH  CO  00  c4  <M'       JO  JO  rH  rH  CO  CO  CO  ?*  CJ  CM*       CO*  CO*  CO  C1  C*  Ci'  rH  rH*       CM*  CM*  C '  rH*  rH  rH  © 

tH-^33  ClCiJOrHt^COOOWcCC^.       COrHOOCCDrHrHOOiOCM       JOJOrHrHCOCMrHCi       JO  t>  00  Ci  ©.  TH  ^"} 

1  ">*§XJ  rHCSGOl-'jOrHCir-'ciod       CCL^CDrHCCCMrHCicCt-'       CMrH©OiCC't-'cOrH       CCt-'cdL*JOrt'cO* 

a^rt  cvjirH^HrHrHrHrH  ^rH^rt^,-!^  r-lrHrH 

I 

^Ngxs     XXXXXXXXXX   XXXXXXXXXX   XXXXXXXX   XXXXXXX 

.S  THrH-*Tti-t<-t<rHrHrHrH       COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO       COCOCOCOCOCOCOCO       CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  CI  CM 

XXXXXXXXXX   XXXXXXXXXX   XX  XXX  XXX   XXXXXXX 

COCOCOCOCOCOCOtOcOCO       COfOCOCOCOfCCCCO       C1CMC1C1C1CIC1 
CO  CC  t- 1-  t- 1—  CO  00  00  Oi  CS       COCDCOI>t— b-l—  XOOXC5 

Q,  ^^      »       jqjrjjqjqjqjqjqiqjqjq'ra     '"I  ^  T"1r"lr"lr"lr"jr"3r1r"lT"l     CiCiCiCiCiCiCJCiCiOSCft 

T^T^rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH       ©©'©©'©'©©©'©©©- 

•    _  p  -          w--^  «v«'*  «v-  »  •--  >.  t  N^^»  -  -        CO  CO  rH  00'  >O  CO  ©  t"^  CO  O  CO       CO  rH  CO  Cl  ©  CC  CO -rh*  CJ  O  t^  /vi  • 

rHrH©©OiCiodoOb-cdCD       OJOJO'TH^rHrHCOCOcOCM       COCO'co'cOCO'ciCMciCM'cMrH  (1|! 

00  00 1- JO  CI  I- rH  rH  rH  CO  Ci       Ci  CO  t-  CI  rH  CO  JO  CO  CO  IO  CO         I     P 
rf.        -t_>  p.  H- I        »'w»v  >«•  >i'k' j -••«.•«  T-IWJ  ••-•»«       t-CirHcO  JO  CC  CC  Ci  O  rH  rH        CM  00  CO  O  >O  ©  »O  ©  JO  ©  JT 

•'cOCOCirHdciODOoVcd       CCl-l-l-cdcOJOJOrHrHC'.         ,-  ,    ^ 

•OOCi©rH  ©©rHC-lCOCOrHJOCDt-00  OC  OC  C5  O  rH  rH  CfCO  rH  JO  CO 
.  -  ,-  .  ,-  -  JHrHrHJqJO  CO  W  CO  00  CC  CX.  a.  a.  CC  X  00  rH  rH  >*  »r?  JO  L7  »O  JO  JO  JO  IO 
cicicMCM'cMCM'cic-iciCMCM  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rHrHrH  rH  rH  rH  rH  H  rH  r-i  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

col 

CO    ^  §   5   &C   >f?  *?  °3  °?  ©  ^  rH  Cl  CC  CO  CO   JO  rH  CO  rH  CO  rH  CO  rH  CO  O  j"o   00  rH  rH  08  fe  CM  CC  JTt  U  T-] -^ 
^O   r        t- CO  JO  •*  rH  CO  Ci' rH  ©  Ci  CO   00  00*  t^"  t-"  CD  CO  JO*  JO  rH  rH  CO*   JO  JO'  IO*  rH  rH  rH  CO*  CO  CO  Cl  C  i 
rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH 

JO  CO  rH  d  OO  CO  rH  C1  Ci  t—  JO   c"OOt-"cdjo'rHCO*c"rH©CC 
D  CO  CO  CO  CM  CM  CM  CM  rH  rH  rH   rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

ci  ci  ci  ci  c^  c4  ci  ci  ci  ci  c4 

CO  tj  fl  C1  ci  .....          -          ...... 

CClO)O-HCCCMrH©Ci001>       rH©CiCiOOt-l>COJOJOrH       CiOOl^t-COCDJOJOrHrHCO 

t  1 

^«  L.  53  O  2  '^-HrHOploc'QQJ.QCMCicD       1^  JO  CO  rH  CC  CD  ^  rH  Oi  t^  rH       ©  OcV  JO*  CO  rH  O  00  CO  rH  CM' 

intii  «iy 


XXX  X  XXXXXXX       XXXXXXXXXXX       XXXXXXXXXXX 
00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00       CO  CO  CO  o  CD  CO  CO  CO  CD  CO  CO       J.tir:i-i--)-)-|-lO>OJOJO 

XXXXXXXXXXX 
JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO  JO 


212 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


?    S3   02* 

.^-O  fl 

SI1 


SIS- 


Radius  o 
Gyration 


omen 
Inert 


•siir  in  eSung 
'jo  H^PIAV 


•sm  ui  qeM.  jo 
sseiiiiDiiix 

•sm  -l)S  m  SUOT; 

-D9S  JO  T?8.iy 

•sqi  in 


•snt  m 

.10 


G 


ininnniiu 

OeOG500THlOTH?Otf5MOOTiHl-OCOOOOOO?O 

d  d  06  oc  <N  d  d  d  co  ^'  cd  c^i  o-i  t^  ci  <M'  06  oo  c~ 

^O  1C  IO  •*  Tfl  CO  CO  CO  CM  <M  i     *~ 


COcOiH>C-*oio6c5CiHCOCO'rHt- 
CO  CO  t-  COr-<Tti-<tiTt<COQOCOTHc5i^H<^1Kti 
•*  IQ  CO  Tf  CO  CO  C3  CO  (M  iH  CO  (M  iH  r-l 


'  T-H  C    O  CO 

lC5C5OJCrjC'lCOTtl 
)O  O  C^l  GC  O  •*  C^J 


OOldlO  IO  O1  09  O  AOQ 


II 

,      KoifQ 

O   S3  £    75          y, 
^.2    O   P^TH 


Radius  o 
Gyration 


m 
n 


JO  q^PTAi 

•sm  ui  q9M  jo 
sseuJiDiqi 

•sni  -T)S  m  suop 


•sqi  m 


•sm  m 
jo 


SO 
C5 


lOOOOOlOlMOkO  t-TO  IQ  »O  rH  --NOO 

lOOOt-OlO^^^COrHCOlMWClOr-i 

'doooo     oo  fo  ib  ^5  Ib  fo  ^  M  w  c<i  b>  d  cs  os  oo  oo 

IWrHr-l       rH  r-l  rH  r-l  rH  r-l  rH  rH  rH  r-l  r-l  r-l 


^  O  o>  oi  O6  00  00  ^  CO  00  t^tr  t-  1^ 


r-iOSGOdt^t-itdr-ir-iCXDlO^COrHOlO^irHodod^dcO 
COOOCOC4OiOQOt-C5(M 


lod^OT(H-^HrHTtHrHdo6t--t^lO 

COCO«M^^!M!M?3c^T-irHrHrH 


d  oo  iri  co'  IM'  rH  d  oi  oo  oo  co  i-  o  id  10 

1-HrHiMrHrHrHrHrHr-l 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


21-3 


TABLE    VIII.     PROPERTIES    OF    BETHLEHEM    II    COLUMNS. 
12  34  5  6  7  8          9  10 


Thick - 

W'ght   Area  Depth    ness  Width 
per        of         of         of         of 
foot  section  section  web  flange 
Ibs.     sq.  in      ins.     ins.       ins. 


Moments          Radius         Sec- 
of  Inertia      of  Gyration     tioii 

Mod  u- 

I  I'  r          r'         lus 

axis       axis      axis    axis        S 


AA 


BB        AA       BB 


14 

in.   H 

Columns. 

83.5 

24.46 

13% 

.43 

13.92 

884.9 

294.5 

6.01 

3.47 

128.7 

91.0 

26.76 

13% 

.47 

13.96 

976.8 

325.4 

6.04 

3.49 

140.8 

99.0 

29.06 

14 

.51 

14.00 

1070.6 

356.9 

6.07 

3.50 

153.0 

106.5 

31.38 

14% 

.55 

14.04 

1166.6 

387.8 

6.10 

3.52 

165.2 

114.5 

33.70 

14% 

.59 

14.08 

1264.5 

420.3 

6.13 

3.53 

177.5 

122.5 

36.04 

14% 

.63 

14.12 

1364.6 

453.4 

6.16 

3.55 

189.9^ 

130.5 

38.38 

14% 

.67 

14.16 

1466.7 

486.9 

6.18 

3.56 

202.3 

138.0 

40.59 

14% 

.70 

14.19 

1568.4 

519.7 

6.21 

3.58 

214.5 

146.0 

42.95 

14% 

.74 

14.23 

1674.7 

554.4 

6.24 

3.59 

227.1 

154.0 

45.33 

14% 

.78 

14.27 

1783.3 

589.5 

6.27 

3.61 

239.8 

162.0 

47.71 

15 

.82 

14.31 

1894.0 

626.1 

6.30 

3.62 

252.5 

170.5 

50.11 

151/s 

.86 

1435 

2007.0 

662.3 

6.33 

3.64 

265.4 

178.5 

5251 

15% 

.90 

14.39 

2122.3 

699.0 

6.36 

3.65 

278.3 

186.5 

54.92 

15% 

.94 

14.43 

2239.8 

736.3 

6.39- 

3.66 

291.4 

195.0 

57.35 

15% 

.98 

14.47 

2359.7 

774.2 

6.41 

3.67 

304.5 

203.5 

59.78 

15% 

1.02 

14.51 

2481.9 

812.6 

6.44 

3.69 

317.7 

211.0 

6207 

15% 

1.05 

14.54 

2603.3 

849.8 

6.48 

3.70 

330.6 

219.5 

64.52 

15% 

1.09 

14.58 

2730.2 

889.3 

6.51 

3.71 

344.0 

227.5 

66.98 

16 

1.13 

14.62 

2859.6 

929.4 

6.53 

3.73 

357.5 

236.0 

69.45 

16% 

1.17 

14.66 

2991.5 

970.0 

6.56 

3.74 

371.0 

244.5 

7194 

16% 

1.21 

14.70 

3125.8 

1011.3 

6.59 

3.75 

384.7 

253.0 

74.43 

16% 

1.25 

14.74 

3262.7 

1053.2 

6.62 

3.76 

398.5 

261.5 

76.93 

36i/2 

1.29 

14.78 

3402.1 

1095.6 

6.65 

3.77 

412.4 

270.0 

79.44 

16% 

1.33 

14.82 

3544.1 

1138.7 

6.68 

3.79 

426.4 

278.5 

81.97 

16% 

1.37 

14.86 

3688.8 

1182.4 

6.71 

3.80 

440.5 

287.5 

84.50 

16% 

1.41 

14.90 

3836.1 

1226.7 

6.74 

3.81 

454.7 

12 

in.  H 

Columns. 

64.5 

19.00 

11% 

.39 

11.92 

499.0 

168.6 

5.13 

2.98 

84.9 

71.5 

2096 

11% 

.43 

11.96 

556.6 

188.2 

5.15 

3.00 

93.7 

78.0 

22.94 

12 

.47 

12.00 

615.6 

208.1 

5.18 

3.01 

102.6 

84.5 

2492 

12% 

.51 

12.04 

676.1 

228.5 

5.21 

3.03 

111.5 

91.5 

26.92 

12% 

.55 

12.08 

738.1 

249.2 

5.24 

3.04 

120.5 

98.5 

28.92 

12% 

.59 

12.12 

801.7 

270.1 

5.27 

3.06 

129.6 

105.0 

30.94 

12% 

.63 

12.16 

866.8 

291.7 

5.30 

3.07 

138.6 

112.0 

3296 

12% 

.67 

12.20 

933.4 

313.6 

5.33 

3.08 

147.9 

118.5 

34.87 

12% 

.70 

12.23 

1000.0 

335.0 

5.36 

3.10 

156.9 

125.5 

3691 

12% 

.74 

12.27 

1069.8 

357.7 

5.38 

3.11 

166.2 

132.5 

38.97 

13 

.78 

12.31 

1141.3 

380.7 

5.41 

3.13 

175.6 

139.5 

41.03 

13% 

.82 

12.35 

1214.5 

404.1 

5.44 

3.14 

185.0 

146.5 

4310 

13% 

.86 

12.39 

12^9.4 

428.0 

5.47 

3.15 

194.6 

153.5 

45.19 

13% 

.90 

12.43 

1366.0 

452.2 

5.50 

3.16 

204.3 

161.0 

47.28 

13% 

.94 

12.47 

1444.3 

477.0 

5.53 

3.18 

214.fr 

214 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


TABLE  VIII-A.— PROPERTIES  OF  BETHLEHEM  II  COLUMNS 


Thick- 

\Vgli t   Area  Depth   ness  Width 
per        of         of         of          of 
foot  section  section  web  flange 
Ibs.     sq.  in      ins.     ins.       ins. 


G  7  8          9          10 

Moments          Radius         Sec- 
of  Inertia     of  Gyration     tion 

— -     Modu- 

I  I'  r          r'         lus 

axis       axis      axis    axis        S 


AA 


BB 


AA       BB 


10  in.  H 

Columns. 

49.0 

14.37 

97/8 

.36 

9.97 

263.5 

89.1 

4.28 

2.49 

53.4 

54.0 

15.91 

10 

.39 

10.00 

296.8 

100.4 

4.32 

251 

59.4 

59.5 

17.57 

ioy8 

.43 

10.04 

331.9 

112.2 

4.35 

2.53 

65.6 

•65.5 

19.23 

10% 

.47 

10.08 

368.0 

124.2 

4.37 

2.54 

71.8 

71.0 

20.91 

10% 

.51 

10.12 

405.2 

136.5 

4.40 

^2.56 

78.1 

77.0 

22.59 

10% 

.55 

10.16 

443.6 

149.1 

4.43 

2.57 

84.5 

-•82.5 

24.29 

10% 

.59 

10.20 

483.0 

162.0 

4.46 

2.58 

90.9 

S8.5 

25.99 

10% 

.63 

10.24 

523.5 

175.1 

4.49 

2.60 

97.4 

94.0 

27.71 

10% 

.67 

10.28 

565.2 

188.6 

4.52 

2.61 

103.9 

99.5 

29.32 

11 

.70 

10.31 

607.0 

201.7 

4.55 

2.62 

110.4 

105.5 

31.06 

11% 

.74 

10.35 

651.0 

215.6 

4.58 

2.64 

117.0 

111.5 

32.80 

11% 

.78 

10.39 

696.2 

229.9 

4.61 

2.65 

123.8 

117.5 

34.55 

11% 

.82 

10.43 

742.7 

244.4 

4.64 

2.66 

130.6 

123.5 

36.32 

11% 

.86 

10.47 

790.4 

259.3 

4.67 

2.67 

137.5 

8 

in.   H 

Columns 

32.0 

9.17 

7T/8 

.31 

8.00 

105.7 

35.8 

3.40 

1.98 

26.9 

34.5 

10.17 

8 

.31 

8.00 

121.5 

41.1 

3.46 

2.01 

30.4 

39.0 

11.50 

8% 

.35 

8.04 

139.5 

47.2 

3.48 

2.03 

34.3 

43.5 

12.83 

8% 

.39 

8.08 

158.3 

53.4 

3.51 

2.04 

38.4 

48.0 

14.18 

8% 

.43 

8.12 

177.7 

59.8 

3.54 

2.05 

42.4 

53.0 

15.53 

8% 

.47 

8.16 

197.8 

66.3 

3.57 

2.07 

46.5 

57.5 

16.90 

8% 

.51 

8.20 

218.6 

73.1 

3.60 

2.08 

50.7 

62.0 

18.27 

8% 

.55 

8.24 

240.2 

80.0 

3.63 

2.09 

54.9 

(57.0 

19.66 

8% 

.59 

8.28 

262.5 

87.1 

3.65 

2.11 

59.2 

71.5 

21.05 

9 

.63 

8.32 

285.6 

94.4 

3.68 

2.12 

63.5 

76.5 

22.46 

m 

.67 

8.36 

309.5 

101.9 

3.71 

2.13 

67.8 

81.0 

23.78 

9% 

.70 

8.39 

333.5 

109.2 

3.75 

2.14 

72.1 

S5.5 

25.20 

9% 

.74 

8.43 

359.0 

117.2 

3.77 

2.16 

76.6 

90.5 

26.64 

9V2 

.78 

8.47 

385.3 

125.1 

3.80 

2.17 

81.1 

yj 


J J ' E 


U 


f=r 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


215 


* 


0     a 

"  a  i 


CH  tO 


a    «    II 

m     +*      to 

5    «M    .5 

1^1 


s  s 

60      •«       X 


J  <u 

^   fl  5 

Q  .^ 

ijl 


1 1 1 


s 


co  q  co  iocs  NqcoorHrHooiojOi-HttOOpOrH^eopt-^iH 

S 

co*  8  SSic5  ^SS^^^^w^^rHrHolqqcscsosci1 

•^  q  C^C-JTH  csqiq^iqt>qcot>rHqrHqc^oqin  I-H  oc  ITS  w  q  t~ 

53  £8  S2£i  S»rft«5!®^woq<Ne>i,M,-;pp  dos'ososoioo 

q  q  »oqq  T^rHrHcot^coooqt^t^ooqdiocoiri  q  rH  o  q  co  w 

IO 

OS  CO 

•* 

10     N  OS  CO  CO  t-;  T^iCt-^C^OOq^^lpqOSrHlpOOCOb-  Ol  t-  CO  OS  O  i 

25 

CO  CO  CO  -.  r-j 

t-;  os  ^csw  r-j  >o  TH  q  r-j  oq  oc  os  co  t- co  q  t-;  q  10 10  ce  oq  o  wo  oq 

|2         o  t-  rHijiH  t-codi— Locidoo  t^irj1*  co'iH  doioo  t^  co  co  tei  •*  co" 

OO  t-   t-COCO  iTJOO'f'^-^TfiCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCJlM  (MWiMCl<NCI 

TH  O   (NOSCO   W  OC_  00  0  !>;  1O  O  t-;  rH  1C  Cl  OS  00  q  q  q  00  q  rH  •*  t-;  rH 

CO  irf   OSCO'jS    OrHodcOcOrHCSl-^CO^COrHOOSQOl—  O  CO  O -^  CO  CO 

00  I-   CO  CO  O    JOiOTT^  ^  •*«  CO  CO  CO  CC  CO  CO  51  iM  iM  W(M(M<NiMc5 

•*  i-j  qosT^  qcicoqqc^jc 

d  co  t^r-ii-  codi-^i^dc 

N  rH   (NWOS   rH  OSO-*  rH  rH  CI1T5O  qcO  rH  OSOSO  O  CO  rt<  t-;  O  CO  t-; 

CO  rH    lOdo    01  00  CO  CO  rH  C5  I-  O  -t  Cl  rH  O  00  I-  I-  CO  1O  -^  CO  CO  C-l  T-i 

L—  t—   COOlO   lT5-<ti^rr-*COCOCOCOCOCOCOiMC<l<M<M  W(NlM(N<MlN 

t-;  o  ^oco  qcioqiqqoqwt>;-*rHqqrHrHC<ikq  oorHioosoqoq 

g 

co  i>  qqq  qqt^qoqcu-corHqosqrHcoooq  IHOOSCOOOOO 

00  H     rHJOiO    OriWt^t^ClrJHrHqqeOl-^CIOOOCl  rHOOrHWCO 

SLO  co  o6r-i»Q  dd^ioi  IQCI  d  x  coTjJcipflsi— cpia  ^cocirHdos 

O  OS   00  00  t-   t-  CO  ^  1-1  >-•  »~  ^  "f  "*  •*  -*1  •*  CC  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  (M 

q  co  loosco  -^rHCoqqcoccqqi^qoqq-^M  rHr-jrHiNcoo 

c-i  co  oocco  cc  -ti  dt-"*rHGO  co"'*'  c-ir-5  cs  v  cc  o  -*<  co'  ci  T-H  o  os  cx5 

O  O   OOt-l-    c53cOLCL<5Lo3<Tt<Tj<Tj<.^eOCOCOCOCO  COCOCOCOWc^ 

1O;T)H    OSOrH   CO^OClTJHt^^WCOTjHOOCOOCOCOrH  rHrHrHCO-*^ 

CO  qicOrHQO    W  N  q  ^  t~  rH  00  00  OS  rH  O  O  t-;  TtJ  CJ  rH  rH  rH  W  CO  O  l> 

co  t^:d-*oo  •*d«MOoc'<r:'corHdcci'i.-:-^cc(M'  rHdcJcr't^q 

OS  00:oOt~CO   COcoOO»T5'<*iTti'<*i'«*>TtiCOCOCOCOCOCO  COCOW  C-IC-lCI 

CO  CO   CO-*CO  iOSqqqOOTHINClCOI^rHt^THrHqOS  OSOrHCOJOGO 

C4  rj5    l-^rHCO  !rH0r'  .*  ,-i  GC  CO -^  71  d  X  I- ».t' -t  CO  Cl'  O  OS  OS  OC  t-  CO  IO 

OS  CO    1--  t-  CO  :  CO  ir5  Lw  O  M<  rfl  •*  Tj<  Tfi  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CICICICl?!?! 


2l6 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


'S 


CO 


* 


0   &  a 

aQ  -r-l 

fcfc  I"H 

O       5 

a  4) 

r=l  •""* 

•"-t          P  .O 

^    3  g 

3    £  5 


M 

«    1 
• 


ss 

«3   a   ^ 


i    3 


a 

2  ;  I 

<W  0) 

0  S  S 

s  s  a 

.£?  0)  ' 

o>  .d  h 


<D       K 

5    e 


TH  X  OS  TH  TH  O  TH  CD  kC  OS  TH  OS  kr: 
OlrH  S  TH  TH  rH  TH  TH  rH 


10  co  CD  01  q  q  TH -H  b-_  01  b-_  c 


CiO   eOOCSONlOCJTHCSlCrH 
t^ld    TH  CO  TH  TH  O  OS  00  00  t-^  t-^  b- 


OlTHiooCCOOCOb-THb-OlCiW 
CDTH'COr-iddcixOOb^CDCO 


Hb-THO    &CICCCO    XCDlCCOrHOS 


irHXlO    OlOXCO   COOlOOb-CO 


DlCOlO    b-^lCCOrH    Ci  OC  CO  1C  CO  Ol 


-;-.-.  -.  IN  q  oq  o  »c  cc  <N  TH  q  x 


<Ob-  kOOXOCOOOOGCCOOCl 


b-O   O>C»Cb-01OiXXOiTHTH    XOU-< 


b-Ol    TH  T-j  Ol  1C  TH  OS  X  O  iH  TH  t-;    rHlCO? 


coco  qb^qTHrnqorHcocoq  T^OSTHO 

b^TH    COT-ioixb^lCTHTHCOOlTH    r-iddd 


coiq  cOTHqcDickOcoqcocOTH  t^oio^ 

1C  01    OXdlCTHCOOlTHTHOd   OS  OJ  00  00 
01  01    OlTHTHTHTHTHTHTHrHTHrH 


OCO    OlTHOXb-XOCOb-r-ICO   rHb-COO 


x  q  o;  cs  cq  TH 
HiHdd  osoiosobocx 


X)THOCD 

dodoi  ososx'odxt^ 


dosoios  x'ooxb^t^b-' 


q  01  oo  ic  oiqb-icoiq 
oioioooo 


rHXicoi  qxiacoiHq 
xi-t^t^  b^cdco'cDcocd 


osx'oo'oo  t^b^b^cd  cc'coco'co'ic'vc 


.  a 

*S 


OTHOlCOTHlQCOb-XOSO   THOlCOTH    kCCOb-00  OSOTHOlCOTH 
THTHTHTHTHiHiHTHTHiHOl    O1O1O1CO    (NOIOIOl    OICOCOCOCOCO 


s 


C..Q 

-t-2  fl 


ooqcoco  t-;ocqco 
b^  co  ic  TH  co  oi  oi  TH 

Ol  Ol  Ol  Ol 


_-..   __    .-.-._.,__    .  _;  qooxx 

THCO    T-i  b- TH  TH  X  CO  TH  Ol  rH  OS  OO    b^  kC  TH  CO 
CDkC   1C  TH  TH  TH  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  O4  O4   O4  Ol  O4  Ol 

qic 


rHOOrH   OlTHb-^0 


qt-;  cocpicb^cooioqcoqcoTH  cocqoico  ot^qcc 
iHq  qicTHt-;cocoTHoqcoqt^  qqcooq  qoikcq 


rHb-   OXiHb-b-XOlXlCTHCO   COTpCOOl   OlCOOSTH 

•--•'--'•'--'-'     'dosoo  06 1^  CD  CD 


Oiq  COcOCDTHTHb-;THXlCTHTH  ICCDOOrH  ICqcOb^ 
bJc\j  OSCDCOTHOJt-CDTHCOOirH  OOSOCX  b-c6cOlO 
THTH  COCOCOCOOIOIOIOIOIOIOI  OlTHiHrH  THrHrHTH 


Ol  TH  b^XCOrHOiqOXqiCkC  COX  rHTH  b^rHCDrH 
1C  TH  b-  TH  Ol  d  X  CO  1C  CO  Ol  rH  d  OS  X  00  b-  CO  CO  1C  1C 
THTH  C^COCOCOOIOIOIOIOIOIOJ  THrHrHiH  rHrHrHTH 


COTH   THcOOSOSrHlCTHXCOCDb-   XOCOb-    OlC' 


CO  O  rH  00  Cl  GO 

ddoioooc'tJ 

OHMTHrHrHrH 


doiooxt-t- 

M  b-  O4  CO  rH  b- 


>THCOrHCOTH 

X  X*  t-^  b^  CD  CO 


01 1-;  rH  CO  Ol  f; 
X  b^  b^  CO  CO  O 


XTHC51COCD 
1C  1C  TH  TH  TH  W 


01 1-;  CO  q  kC  TH 

1C  TH  TH  CO  CO  CO 

'TH  THrH  THTH 


CO  rH  b-;  CO  OS  CO 
H  CO  CO  01  01 


OlCiHb-TH  O 

THcocooioioi 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


217 


1  ! 

p 

00   CO  1C  ^  ^  CO   CC 

fiol 

ICCO 

iHO 

OS  00 

i—  <e  ic  *c  -+  ce  cc  01  ci  01  TH  TH  o 

a> 

^ 

^      *"*      d 

c«     o     a 

HH 

cl 

CO    OCOCCJCCOI    OS 

t-TM 

04  TH 

CSX 

I,  CO 

»C  ^  •*  CO  CC  Ol  Ol  iH  iH  O  O  O  CS 

JQ         -M          CC 

v 

ci 

t—    1C  H^  ^  CC  C*i    CI 

oi  ci 

ci  c-i 

THiH 

rHTH 

T-^  i-i  i-i  i-i  TH  T-!  r-i  r-i  r-i  i-i  r^  i-i 

*             ^ 

IO 

iH 

O        fcJD      SO 

X         ^        TH 

cj^ 

••>*<';  C-i  cot-  01  c:  c 

CCiH 

ox 

t-co 

1C-* 

rf  CC  01  01  iH  iH  O  O  CS  Oi  OS  C.  X 

?  **    II 

i         O>         W 

CS 

CO|IC^CCOO<M   <N 

I     ^      * 

tfi 

G 

*M  .        •— 

« 

CO   eOOCCOCCTH    CO 

01  Ci 

CO  CC    TH  OS   t—  CO 

L~  -^  01  TH  O  OS  CS  X  t-  t-  CC  kC  1C 

Y< 

0,0° 

l-i 

TH    OS  I-  CO  »C  1C    ^ 

TfKTC 

cc  cc  cc  oi  oi  oi 

§ 

£    2     « 

c-. 

*4       It        *•" 

H 

t- 

t-    1C  TH  TH  CC  t—    C-l 

OSLC 

ceo 

oct- 

1ft-* 

WTHOCSXXI-COCClClOTt«<ri 

1 

05          ^         "* 

- 

^ 

o  cei-coiO"*  -^ 

TH 

CCCC 

cccc 

fc  ' 

-M          95 
03          0>          ^l 

X* 

t—   b-lC»CGC  CC    OS 

kCOl 

ox 

CCrrl 

corn 

OOSXXl-CCkClC'*^CCCCCC 

o 

TH 

CS   t-CC»C^Tj<   CC 

cccc 

CC04 

(NCI 

W<N 

02 

•^    **    iJ 

£< 
0 

« 

c3    a 
j^ 

TH    COt-OJOlH    •* 

occo 

OS  CO 

COO 

xco 

^OlTHCSXt-COLO^CCOlOO 

EH 

§    £  ~ 

<N 

CO   OJOOSOOt-    CO 

1010 

-tl^< 

•*Tj< 

cccc 

CC  CC  CC  Cl  01  01  01  Ol  Ol  Ol  O<  Ol  CI 

g 

o§ 

rt         /i)         m 

a   |  2 

Q 
H 

- 

§    a    1 

M 
5 

1C 

OS   CSOiC1^  CC   OS 

23 

CDCC 

Ot-; 

1C  CO 

cccc 

cc  co  oi  ci  c^i  oi  oi  oi  M  oi  oi  oi  TH 

t- 

H 

p 

P5 

u 

a 

0^0 

CO  OdOSCSrH   »C 

oco 

olo: 

r-rH 

01  iH 

osxccic^ceoiTHocaxx 

5 

2 

c/5 

-d 

c 

111 

CO    THOSt-COCO   1C    1C"* 
TH    iH 

cccc 

cccc 

oi  oi  oi  ci  oi  ci  oi  ci  oi  oi  T-I  TH  TH 

c 
^ 

(0 

'E 

to    t2      o 

1C 

01    OClCCCrHO    OS   00  1- 

00 

ot- 

COlC 

1C  1C 

XkCCOrHCSXCClCTtiOlTHOO 

J 

*H 

05               S 

£ 

PS 

« 

-^         > 

^       m       K 

a    2    «> 

o 

cc 

•*   iHO>01t-;»C   CO   00  TH 

COiH   t-CC 

COCO   W5  1C 

OO; 

LCCOr-ICSb-cq^COWTHCSCSX 
Tj5  -^  r^  CO  CC  CO  CC  CC  CC  CO"  O1  Oi  01 

c 

</5 

cs    a    o 

Cl 

W    THTHlHlH 

fa 

M 

a  |  | 

M 

fc 

t-J 

'C 

oo 

§ 

o'  co'ccTHOod  oo 

C4    iHTHiHrH 

55 

CO  1C 

coo 

t-;>C 

ci  q  x  cc  ic  co  w  TH  q  cs  x  t-  to 
Tji^ccccccccccco'cc  of  oi  oi  oi 

02 

V 

<u     -a     "C 

C 

z 

S    ""1    2 

-»1 

< 

OS  .'01  CO  00  1C  rt<   CO 

CSCO 

00-* 

TH  t— 

iqoi 

qxcoTjHccoiqqx  t-^co  ic  •* 

C 

•W           fl          ** 

iH 

co":  »c  oi  o'  os  oo  t> 

coco 

IC'T^ 

rj<cccocccccoccoioi  oToi  oi  oi 

h3 

"         05* 

TH  ;T-ITHTH 

K 

S    "^    a 

«3 

g      o      , 

8 

o  Tj<qosicco  01 

oo 

OirH 

0|Tt< 

xco 

CO-* 

pCOCOOX»CCOTHCSt-COTt<CO 

ocs 

XX  t-t- 

c^  co  co  cc  »c  ic  id  kc  •*  •*  •*  •*  ni 

0: 

^      ^3       p 

CC    OJOlTHiHTH    r-i 

>> 

1    1  1 

TH    iH  rH  OJ  TH  •*    O 

cso 

coco 

OiC 

THt- 

ceot-icojoxcqiccooiocs 

r*i 

.Q       ^ 

8 

O   Tjl  O  I—  1C  CO    OJ 

do 

osod 

xt- 

l-CO 

CO  CO  1C  »C  1C  kO  ij5  M<  •*  ^  •*  •*  CO 

& 

•S    rt   5 

w 

CC   OlOliHTHi-i    r-i 

A 

^      >rt 

P5 
•^ 

"«          CS          £ 

OS 

1C 

Cl    OOiHlCCOrH    OS 

i-  THXic'ccoi  o 

CSO 

•*00 

oix 

^o 

C-^ClO«OlC-*01OCSb-COiC 

CSOS 

00  t- 

t-co 

coco 

ClClClO^^^^l^COCOCOCO 

EH 

"3 

W     Ol  TH  TH  1-1  TH     TH 

O                   T3 

C)    Ol  X  •<*!  1C  rH  i  O 

THTf 

t-OJ 

t-co 

csco 

cc  q  x«c  •*  01  q  cs  t-;  co  ic  •*  ci 

iili! 

53 

OSX 

t-t- 

coco 

«»c 

^    »  ~ 

^  0  C  Q,w 

'Sc 

5  s 

II 

•  c 

cS  ^ 

«    p 

&s 

£~ 

COrf   »OCOt-OCCS   O 

THO1 

COT* 

»ccc 

t-x 

SgSo1?5SclSolS?ic?S 

218 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


S    "S 

•^        <u 

k 

g1  s 

M     a 

a* 

13    3 

a 

CO 

0) 

to 

§ 

S  g 

« 

S 

§G> 

II 

ft 

CC 

S"  - 

bo 

a 

"        0 

^ 

o    5 

1 

^ 

1    '£ 

1 

ii     o> 

a; 

w    ^a 

CO 

-t-> 

5 

&    s 

"ft 

S  I 

h 

O 

1   8 

VH 

£ 

a   >> 
•^   ^i 

1 

§ 

j 

X         <D 
OS       >• 

a   « 

a 

4J 

3 

u 

83    3 

t-i    -~ 

g 

o 

'5 

V 

a 

C/) 
T3 

figured  fo 
stiffened  w 

c3 

<D 

^3 

| 

§ 

O>         OJ 
b       X5 

S 

w 

TJ 

tt 

<D 

h 
rt 
13 

C 

•§       1 

§   a 

'£ 

ct 

m      X! 

CO 

W3 

o3     g 

a          r6 

a 
o 

c 

S      ^ 

B 

M 

fl    -a 

<D 

IP* 

o     -^ 

« 

V 

aj    «r 

•C 

g 

1=3     2 

OJ 

< 

*~l 

,a 

o     | 

^ 

4->         -M 

S 

^3       0 

be    -d 

.2 

a>      o 

cs    -a 

>j 

+J 

>• 

a>     ID 

J3        > 

-M           Q 

cJ 

<D 
fl 

«     •§ 

T3       w 

0) 

,a 
-P 

P          CO 

I  ?! 

^~* 

iD 

co       o 

X! 

TJ    .«»-( 
C3  fl  cS       a 

O   0    CO         rQ 

"'-g  bfl      § 

fiSBfei12 

<M  __.  .,-H     OC 

02  m  rjl 
W  *  |3 

.2=2 

S3 

•8S 

§8 


De 
Be 


O  CO  COCMd 
CM  rH  rH  rHrH 


rH  o 
10  CM 


rH  CO  OS  CM  00 


-*rHT-ICOr-IOOOCMrHTt<rHOCM 

o  CM  coppCMCOrHOooi--ScorH 


iHCS   OS  T-I  *f  OS    1O  CM  O  LO  O5  OS 
rjn  rH    OS  CC  CO  rtj   CO  O]  rH  OS  OO  t— 
|5   COCO'COCO    CO  CO  CO  CM  CM  CM 


co  co  co  co  co  co  CM  <M°  CM  CM'  CM'  CM' 


t-  rH  t—  Tfi  CM  rH  rH  CM  CO  IO  00  rH 
T-JO  OCt-COlO.  ^COCMrHOO 
COCO 


OJ  <M  <N  IM  <N  01 


CM  CM  CM  CM'  CM  CM 


00    CD   lO  CD  rfH  t-  CO  CM  CO  10  00  iM  t-;  CM  00    XO  CM  iCi  CO  CO  rH    OS  I-  CO  •*  CM  rH 

O    <*   O  t- LO  CO  CM  rH  0  OS  00  00  t- L- CD    OCO 


•*  p  CO  t-;  t-;  CM  p  O  CM  lO  OS  CO  p  LO  rH  00  lO 
t^  CM  GO  10  CO  <M  rH  O  OS  00'  t- 1-'  CO  CO  CO  1O  »O 
CM  CM  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 


rH  CO  CO  rH  O 
(M  rH  rHrHrH 


CO  rH  O  OS  GO  t^  1-'  «O  «5  W  irf  •*'  •* 

O5  » 


CO   CD  I- 
CO    COCO 


MOOOCD   •*  W  i-j  OS  00  l> 

•*'  •*  CO*  CO  CO 


CO  CO  CO'  CO  CO  CO 


co  co  co  co  c  CM 

CD  00 


O  t--  IO  Tf 

.    _  .rHOS   OOt^  . 

CO  CO  CO  CM'    CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  CM* 


L-   CMt-   COO*  CO 


OS  00   OOOOt-t- 


JTHOO   COOS  COCMO5CC 


lOrH   OOlOCMO 


CO   T)HCOO<MOOCOCOGOrHiraOlOrH    t-rt<   rHOOCOCO 
10   rHOOO^CMrnd     '     '     '    '    ' 
CM    CM  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 


COCO   COlOlOlO 


OC'.OCOOOt-rtHCOlOOOrHlOrHt-CO    Ot-   •*  ( 


O  t-  UO  CM'  O  00 
^  CO  CO  CO  CO  IO 


Oi  t-  kO  CO 
CO  CO  IO  O  O  IO 


t-lOCOrHOSOO 


rH  Oi  l>  CO  •*  CO 


CO  •*  <M  rH  Oi  00 


*  rH  OS  t-_  C-l  O  O  00  1C  LO  00  CO  rH  p  O  rH  CO  IOCS  CO  t-;  CM  00  CO  p  O  lO 
'  —'  ------  —  -•----•    o  OS  t-^  !>•  CO  IO  TJ^  CO  CO  C-i  OJ  rH  rH  O  O  OS 


co  cc  t^poqxcopoqpTjHppoqp  pec 


COCOCMrH    rH  rH  O  O  OS  00 


CO   •*    VOrH^COCO(MCMlOpt-;CDt-;00    OCO    t-;rHCOrH    t-;CJplOCMCC 

co  co  T^GCcooscoTtlcMdost-'cDioMi  r^'co  CM'IM'IH'IH  ddosos'osoo 


t-    KO  rHCMOO-*t-kOpOCD-<*'+liqt-;  OCO  t-Clt-CO-pkOrHOOlOt-; 

rH    OS  T-Hlodl-^lM'dosi-COlOTtH'cO  COoi  rHrHOd    OSOSOSCOoOt-^ 

CO    •*  TJHCOCOOliMlMiMrHrHrHrHrHrH  rHrH  rHrHrHrH 

p!O  O  IO  TfH  CO  I- t-;  p  »O  CM  rH  CM  T^  p  OCC  OOCOpiq    rH  b-  rtj  rH  00  rH 

b-^iio'  06 oi  x' >o oi  o' 06 1- co >o TH co ci  CMrH  ddosoi  csodocoot-t^ 

lOl'*  CO  CO  CM  CM  CM  CM  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rHrH  rHrH 


O    iqlpOOOOt-CMCMlOrHOSOOCSiHCO    t- rH    CO  rH  t^  CO   p  IO_  CM  p  t-^  •* 

i  d  od  i- 


»O    •*'  il-rHt^TjHCM'doo't-»O-*CO'cOOi    rHrH    O  O  OS  OS   00  CO  00  I-  t-^  t-^ 


COt-OOO5OrHiMCO'*lOCOl--00 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


219 


sow 

§  *   i! 

ft  2  e 
o  '£  a 
S  3 


H       45 

2 


rH             I*  O 

I      §  I 

£>      vT  trf 

OJ 


"S       ^ 


i  I 

' 


3 1 : 

<D  rt       .S 

S  «o    fe 

I  I*! 


o  a  G  ^— • 
tS.2"wrQ<aj 

*      ^M 


o  t-  1-  w  c^i 

1-  r-l  t-  Tt«N 


t-  IOM"  co'co'c-i  cici 


copcopl-e  , 

CO    I—  t-;  rH  I—  CO  rH  i 

co  ^cocooic-icii 


.  L-7  CS  CO  CD  00  O  00 
M  'Oir-iOiMCil-O 


io":c6co'o'cii 


jlO    OGO   OCOC   OCOl-r-l»Or-ICOMO> 
OC   I-  IS   -*CO   COCMrHT-lOOC-.OSOO 


Clt-  »AO  ^^  ^1 


CM  CO    O  OS 
CMrH    OO5 


e  8.$5$$S;5  3.8 

rH   00*  CO  ITS  Tj*  •*'  CO  CO   CO'c: 


O  CO  CO  O  Lt  CJ  CO    0< 
CM    I- rH  rH  ••*  GO  •*  q   CC  I 

o  i- co  ITS  T)H  co  co  co  CM'< 


CM  t- 00  •*  CO  OS  OS  •< 
OS  t-  CO  •*  CO  CO  OS  CO  r^ 

co  co  iri  •*'  co'  co  CM  ci  Mci 


t-rH  OCO 
IQCO  rHOi 
Cir-i 


oq  corH^clcocoq  8S  wq 
co  cidooi-^din  <*^  coco 


CO    IT?  rH  CO  IT5  L—  rH  q    rH  GO    K5  C^l 
irf   rHCSl-'cOL'JlO-*    -*CO   CO'CO 


COOrHl—Qrtl    COO   OOlO 
-*    WCjOSOSrHCOrH    I- rij    rH  OS 

co  o'  co  co  o  ia  •*'-*'  coco  foci 


rHCOrt<COOO:GO    IOI-   COCO 

co  cicOrHCiqqq  coO  ccco 
<M'  cs  i-  co  is  -<**  •*  co  co*  co  CM  CM 


irOCOl-l-OOrHTtl    Tt<QO    t^OS 

rH  iqqirsi-rHi-co  qi-  oco 
rH  :GOCO*LS-*-*'COCO  cocM  c'" 


o  co  ci  o  ci  ci  <M  ci  CM  CM'  CM 


N  CM' ci  CM  CM  CM' ci 

^  OS  CO  O  OC1 1 

I~;lft  ^COrH<_   .     _ 

MC-J  <M  ci  Ci  C1  rH  rH  rH  r-i  i-i 


1T5O    CO^-*^»ftt-OCOt-- 

*co  i-jSoscot-.qqior^ 

1    CI  Ci  r-i  rH  rH  rH  rH  r-i  iH 


O  CO  t-  I—  O  O 

ci  ost^qrHosqco  coco 

rH  id  ci  o  os  t- 1-  cd  t6va 

CI    tHrHr-i 

TJH  in  O  OS  •*  rH  t— 

•*   CO  L—  t- CO  CO  •*  OO  COCO 


i-"  :eoo'ooi-cooi3 


coco 


SO  »O  O  CO  O   COO    OS^J 
^qosqcooo  coo  q^ 
cdicMoscc'cdco'io-*  •*'*  co'oo 


h-*    COCO    COW    CMC1)    CICI 


rocococo'co'iriciciM 


ro  co  co  <M  w  o  <M  ci  c 


rO  LO  O  CO  CO  N  r-l  iM  CO 

rH  O  uC  CO  IO  •*  CO  W  rH 

ro  CM  c4  N  ci  N  oi  <ri  <N 


MCOMOOOOOOOOM 
y.  -  i  -  -f  C  1  rH  O  O  OS 

oi  ci  fri  ci  ' 


•«J*  U3  CO  t- CO  O  O   t-HCI   CO-*    IOCO 


22O 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


! 


5-; 

iJ         02 
03        bJD 

p*     fl 

2   1 


a  s 

s  ^ 

g  "3 

°X  03 

a  ! 


I  8 

|  i 

bfi  S 

tfl  O 

03  o 

^  flj 


1 


O       n 


03         ° 


These  safe 
afe  deflection 
For  safe  l 


rH  O  L3  OC  CO  C-l  CO  O 

T-HSOrHGCO?OT-iGO 
<M'  in  i-i  d  frj  T-5  T-I  d 


c^T-HiHdc4iHi-iddoT-idodi-idoddd 


C^<MiHrHC)(Mt-lt-iTHOr-(r-IOOr-lr-IOOOOOOOOOOOOO 


rJ<eOOCDlO<MOJCSOciiHt-t~>OCl^Ot-< 
CO  (M*  rH  r-i  CO  W  T-l  r-5  rH  O  r-i  T-i  O  O  T-5  rH  O  O  d  O  O  O  r-i  O  O  C  O  O  O  O  O  O  O 


•*  CO  (M*  i-i  -*  CO  W 


t-iococidincoc^iiriwco'c^oiiHcoc^i 


idr-io'dddddd 


t^  S5  K3  rt  W  O  t^  O6  W  05  O  W  IO  O  W 
^  00  1^  IQ  CO  00  ^  00  CO  e4^  M  C4  C4  OJ  e4r4  C4  1-4  r4  1-4  r4o  r^  O 


HMMMMKMMMMMMMMMXXXXXXXXXXMMMMMHMXMHMM 

^^?  ^?'^!^J^         ^^-'^'^ 

jwwec  eo  eo  c«w«w 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


221 


8, 

CO 

1 


h  o 
ne 


V9$$5598$993 

r-irHrH 

t—  O  CJ  OO  O  rH  LO  O  CO  "I  ~  I- 

CO  rH  CI  L-  -O  -  17  17  ^  •*  CO  CO 
rHrH     ' 

»  Ift  to  •*  •*  •*  CO  CO 


COOOCCt-rHCiCirH- 
C^  I-  rt<  C|  rH  Ci  00  00  I 
C-l  rH  r-i  rHrH 


(MrHrHtHi-l 


C^  O  X  1-  0  V  K3  IS  • 

' 


rH  (M  r-l  CO 
CO  <N'  ci  rH 


'f  C\  O  1C  t-  CO  CI  CI  >O  X  CO  CO 
LTj  C  I-  ^  C I  rH  O  OS  OO  I-  I-  O 
C-i  Ci  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 


o  -*'  co  co  r  i  c-  i  r  i  i 


O  Tj<  CO  M'  (M  CI  ci  rH  rH  i-i  rH  i 


<x  SoSS  t--^;  T-J  c|t-  L   -  - . . 

•^  CO  CO  Ci  Ci  Ci  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  i 


TjHCOCOCJOdrHrHrHrHrHrH 

-ri^z^sgsg^sss?; 

•*  CO  CJ  ci  CI  T-?  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  i-i 

NeOOO T  '  1-1  x  —  1.7  -F  cc  T i  ^ 

•*" CO  ci  Ci  C1  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 


-t<  -c  *t  t-  -^  x  ci  :r  r  i  os  :c  co 

in  rH  OS  L-  CO  L7  17  -t  •*  CC  CO  CO 

rH  r-i 

O  1O  •*  O  O  SO  I-  CI  00  17  C)  O 
•*  O  OC  1-;  CO  U7  TJJ  "*  1C  *'"  «  M 


8b-rHj'*riCC"r-i^'M 
S  o  J  i-  '^  1.7  ..7  ^  -r 


-r  tr  ri  i-  tr  y  r^  ^  ^j  os 

1.7  T-I  ci  i-  -^  1.7  u:  .  -r  -f  co  c 


h  o 

nne 


222 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


% 


accordance  with  the  New  Yo 
owed  in  New  York. 


9££ 

-M    CJ  "\ 

^•gji 

&  ""* 

.S  "2      . 

SSI 
l.ss 


5  d  IO  rH  HH  Tj*  ci  d  CO  CO*  GO  Oi  d  TH  CO  d 


i-i  TH  co  o  TH 


rH  rH  CI  1*1  7~1  7*1 


o*  10  ci  ci  T+H  co  r~  ci  co  d  co  10'  oc  cc  ci  cc  -j"  LO  10 10  Tt"  ci  10 

t-  CO  1O  t-  GO  Oi  O  O  TH  CO  •*  1O  rH  CO  >O  CO  <X'  CO  IO  I—  Ci  rH  t- 


38 


H-  OD  O  rH  O  rH  CO  ^  CC  CI  CO  >  O  I-  CC  CO  1 0  I-  O  rH  t-  q  C I  H<  CI  HH  t- 
rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  TH  r-1  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  CI  CJ  TH  CJ  CI  CI  CI  <M  CI 


COt>cOCOOGOrHrHClOiOClGOGOOlOrHC^lOqciCOGqGOCiOClrHOOOirHC<IrhipCOC5 

'  M  co  d  ci  rt*  d  cit-  r^  HH  -t"  o-i  ci  co  ci  d  ci  ci  cc  TH  TH  ^  t-'  " 

rHrHrHTHrHrHTHrHrHTHTHTHrHrHrHrHCJrHCJCICJC 


N  rH  oi  CC  CO  1O  IO  CO  1O  •*  ci  CJ  1O  CO  cilO  OlO  CiCClO  CC  O  I-  c*  >~  CC  d  )-'  i-'  y'  rH  d  rH  CC  CJ  ! 

^loScOlOCCl-OGCiO^OiOTHOfM-T!-.  -  CI-^"X  CT.it'^V.  -  71  y   OC7|~r->-CC; 

THTHT-iTHTHTHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHCIClTHCJCIfMCICICI) 


OrHciio^odcic^cCrHidoirHcic»H'cioocicci^^THdGodddXTHio'dH'odTH 

O  CO  CO  1O  CO  L-  GO  O5  CO  CO  Oi  O  CJ  rH  CI  HH  LC  L~  CI  HH  O  00  C  -p,  —  y  r-.  :t  y.  —  r7  CO  CO  CC  CC  r-l 
THrHrHrHTHTHrHTHrHTHTHClT— IrHrHc^CJT— iCICJCICICICIoO 


Hfr^  COrH^ONO  W  «0  «O  COO  O  O  Oft  »fflfr-»»O&O  t^  TH  t^CO  WOOb-  OOO  00  CO  IO  OS  O  K3 

o  -*'  oi  ko  Tji  ci  oi  CD  ci  o  ci  GC  t-"  iri  GC  t-  1-^  cc  o  t^  GO  d  d  r-i  co  ci  <M  •*  co  o  irr  x  ci  t^  c  i  cc  j  i 
«»^rt  v  ^w®  *^»5  Wb»®  r-«>»  o  t-  x  o  TH  (^  co  01  TH  c^i  co  TH  c^i  w  LC  cc  10  cc  oo 


rH  rHrHrH 


O  O  O  o  O  rH  rH  TH  rH  C^  iM  M  C-l 


^»OlOlOCOOCDCOCOI^I^b-l>I^OOGCC<)CC)GOC5CiC;O5Oi 

-L-l>I>GOCCGCCCGOciCiOiOiCiddOddrHr-iT-iT-i 


L-  L-J  00  Ci  O  rH  CO  Oi  rH  CJ  CO  CI  rH  CI 
rHrH     rH  rH  rH   rH  rH 


rHCOfCT-iGOL'5 
H  O  I-  CO  COOS  rH 


COCOOOCOCOrHcOlOlOfOl^cqrHqqcOGOrHrH^CICOrHCCt^CiqqrHqcOO^cqCL^TH 

•A  d  rt*  Oi  •*  Ci  OO  TJH  O  CO  ci  rH  O  GO  10  1O  1O  10  TI"  CC  rH  CO  JO  CC  rH  CC  rH  1O  X*  £J  C  l~  C  ~O  U~*  CJ  ci 

c5  CO  CO  00  CO  rH -*  »O  CO  •*  1O  CO  t- t- L- CC  C5  O  r-i  X  O  T-I  CI  CO  O  rH  CC -f  I  -  :7  >-  "  y.  '-T  Gr,  O  CJ 


i  r-i  t-  oc  co  cc 


!Joj^*>:w^Q«*iw^»o^prH^cJciMCDcoci^ccci^W(»oj«^q6c4Mpco 


O  CD  Ci  tJ  Oi  t-'  IO  Ci  Ci  X*  GC  GO  X*  l~  ^'  rj*  1O*  LO  CO  1O  OS  CI  CC  CO  CC  -H  CJ  10  d  O  CC.  |X  (^  10  lO  M*  C? 

COfOrlHrtlCOr^lOCOCOTtHlOCOI^COGCoOrHCIOiOCIcOHHOCirH^I-^lOl-CifqCiTHCO 


co  ^'  co  d  ^'  ^  ci  ci 


o  ci  ci  cc  co  cc  co  TH 


...         _  __  _    JSfcOrHM 

^•s^ 

4^    " 

O  a! 
§^§ 

H  H.2 

a^o* 

,2-S  2    |   lOlOlOkOCCCOCOCOCCt-t-L-t-t-COOOOOGCXOiOiCiOiOiOOOOOrHrHTHTH^CIClCJ 
a        *      j  rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHTH        T 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


223 


)  the  nearest  inch  does  not  exceed  120  times 
ending  to  the  unsupported  length. 

I  -Beams. 

Size  Length  Loading 

ceoicocOGOGOcecorccoajwo; 

ooooooooooooo 

Channels. 

ooooooooSo 

COCSrHTJHaOcJcOOGCT^OGrCO 
rH   rH   rH   <N   Ol   CO   CO   O   CO   I-   OS 

r-l   rH   rH   rH  OA   "*i 

aaaaaaaaaaaaa 

aaaaaaaaaa 

COOCOOIOS^OOOrHCSCOrHt- 

rH 

»£«^««He*eHg« 

M<   ^   l.t    l.t    L-5   CO   CO   L-  X    Ci 
*    M    cc    CO    1C    y"    y!    yj   y*    o; 

£££££££££££££ 

i«iaia«i«M 

•*Si?OOc6slH«LOOCO 
rH    rH    rH  Ol   CO 

a'  a  a'  a'  a'  a  a  a  a  a  a'  a  a' 

caaaaaaaaa 

i-H   r-t   rH   rH   OJ   O-l 

•*                 oo       ^  ci  in 

Figured  in  accordance  with  the  New  York  Building  Code.  The  maximum  length  t( 
the  least  radius  of  gyration  of  the  section. 
In  all  cases  is  given  the  allowable  load  for  columns  with  square  ends  and  corresi 

Angles. 

bo 

a 

•3 

od 

o 

tii 

a 

<D 
VI 

OO            OOOOOPO        OOO 

CO     CO 

a  a 
o  o 

CO             CO     00       CO             CO     ^! 

a       aaa       a  a 
o        ooo        o   o 

CO    OS          t-   rH   •*   IO   1-*  OS   ©       -*LOLO 

OS    CO 
rH    O 

CO           TH    l>     OS           ^    71 
GC          rH   CO     O          l~    I- 

l~    •*           O    OS   t-    1O    CO    rH    O       OS   CO   CO 

aa       aaaaaaa     aaa 

a  a 

a        aaa        a    a 

OS   ©          OOCOOSOSOSOO       00   00   OS 
rH                                              rH   rH 

OS   O 
rH 

0          OSOS     0          OCS 

£  C       ££££££££££ 

3%x3%x&  6  ft 
3%x3%x%  6ft 

X          X    X    'x          XX 

CO          CO   CO     CO          CO    0^1 
X          XXX          XX 

CO          CO   CO     CO          CO    CJ 

XX          XXXXXXX       XXX 

V?J     X^J    X^J 

XX           XXXXXXX       XXX 

^  "^  ^ 

Angles. 

M 

a 

03 
O 

a 
a 

1 
53 

aaaaaaaa       aaaaaaaaa       aaaaa 
oooooooo        ooooooooo       _o°2°o 

OS   TJH   CO   O   O)    Tf   1--   O          CO   O   01    CJ   CO   CO   CO   CO   Ol          M   CO   rH   TjJ   O 

eaaaaaaa       aaaaaaaaa       aaaaa 

COL-*t^OOOOOSOiO          t^t^OOOOOOOSO 
rH 

J   O   O          CO   CO   I-   I-   OS 

xxxxxxxx       xxxxxxxxx       xxxxx 

OOGOC/jOOC/)OOODOO           COCDCOCOCOCOCOCOO           l^LOL^)!^^ 
OOGOCCOOOOOO<»(»           cScgcOOCOO'-COO           li    I-    1-    l-    l- 

224 


ERECTION  AND  INSPECTION  OF 


tfl 


»  to  3>  6  1-  1-  t 


O  O  tO  t~  C:  •-  i  -  I  -  -/    »O>  O4r-(  rt  i-(  »  t-       O  rH       CO  »t-  O  rH*  IpOO 

rH  n  CO  •*  IQ  CO  I—  GO  C5  O  r-(  Ol  -r  IT  —  1-  V.  ~  —  —  ~\  ~!"  >~  "-^  I-  X  ~-  r-i  "'  ~.~  ~r  1  7 
1-  t-  t-  I-  L-  L-  t-  L-  L-  X  X  X  X  X  X  X  X  QU  »  OS  OS  OS  OS  OS  OS  OS  OS  O  O  O  O  O 


rH  -^  I—  O  CO  I-  O  •*  t— 


II 


a 

•  r4 

d« 

rH 
M 

O 


.  bfi 
o1 


l 
: •  I-  1~ •  •*  'M  r^ 

i  O  rH  71  ?C  *f  t 

wou"5oo 


0 

•rH    (1) 


S| 


lH       rHWCO^CDt-OOOSOrH 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTIONS 


225 


r-i    w    «s    tr    P    TH 


O     (M 


O      !•!      Ifl 

O      O      r-l 


£     £ 


I-      Ci      TH      CO 


rfl      CO      00 

••ti     O5     rH 

co  £9  4< 


O     Ol     Tf<     CO     00 

TfH        Oi       Tj<        Oi        ^| 


C5     iH 
t—     I— 


CI     S 

^2  S 

00     05 


ass 


5      TH      CO     CI      I—      !M      I—      C^I      00 

iss&isjgi!!; 


s  s 


O      O      TH      rH 


s  iisss 


9<^^^<«°« 

THlACOt-iHOSOTHCO 


O      C-l  IM      CO 


iH     C-I     -f     O     CO     I-     O     O     iH     <N     •*     W     CO     t-     O 

CO      CO      O      M      O      X      i-l      «      00      r-l      •*      I-      O      CO      O 
OOOr-(iHr-l?)I'I^ICOCOCOrt<rt»Tj' 


INDEX 


Page 

ACCIDENTS    54 

AIR    COMl'KKSSOK    34 

ALUMINA    IN    CAST    IRON    12 

ANCHORS    66 

ANNEALING     27 

ANNEALING    WROUGHT    IRON..  17 

ASSEMBLING    .                                        .  43 


BASES     52 

Details    of    84 

Setting    of     54,  86 

Testing    of    84 

BEAMS   53 

Connections   of    54.     96 

Floor  96 

Framing    of     101 

Loading    of    101 

Sidewalk     101 

Tie   96 

Wall    .  '.»<; 

BENDING    TESTS    18.  23 

BESSEMER    PROCESS    19 

BEST  IRON 17 

BLAST    FUKXACK    12,  13 

BLISTERS     15 

BLOCK   FOIl    DEIiUICK    76 

BLOW     HOLES     14 

BOLTING  CAST  COLUMNS   ..          .91 

BORING    25 

BRACING    43.  54 

BRACKET      107 

BULKHEAD    107 

BUSTER .  34 

BUTT   PLATE 94 


CARBON    IN    CAST    IRON    .      ..12,  14 

CARRIER     106 

CAST    IRON 

Advantages    16 

Air  holes 14 

Coeff.  of  expansion    5 

Columns    15,  53 

Defects    of    14 

Definition   of   12 

Disadvantages  of   16 

Elastic    limit     5 

Factors    of    safety     5 

Fractures  of 14 

Gray    14 

Inspection  of 15 

Impurities   in    14 

Manufacture   of    12 

Molting    point    of    5 

Modulus    of   elasticity    5 

Mottled     14 

Pipes     15 

Properties    of    14 

Structural     47 

Test  bars    15 

Tests     15 

Ultimate    elongation    5 

Ultimate     strength     5 

Weight    of    r. 

White     14 


Pajre 

CAST    STEEL 1_>1 

CAULKING     2-s 

CAVITIES    IN    CAST    IRON     .  14 

COEFF.  OF  EXPANSION    4 

COLD    SHUTS    15 

COLUMN     PIERS     SO 

COLUMNS 

Cast    iron    15.  53 

Eccentricity    in    ss 

Setting    of    r.-j 

Splices    of     5& 

Steel    53 

COMPENSATION    FLANGE     s-J 

CONNECTIONS 

Riveted  32 

Standard   for   cast   iron    100 

Standard  for  steel   OS 

COSTS  OF  INSPECTIONS   56 

CRANES  DEFINED   72 

CRUCIBLE    PROCESS     1» 

D 

DAMAGES      .49 

DEFECTIVE  ANCHORAGE    70 

Ropes     .76 

DEFECTS    IN 

Cast    Iron    14,  88 

Cast  columns 15 

Painting    107 

Separators    61 

Stairs    109> 

Steel    21 

Store   fronts    70- 

Strapping    63- 

Templates   65 

Wrought  iron   17' 

DEFINITIONS     1' 

DELIVERIES   ...  .49* 

DERRICK     55,  72 

DERRICKS 

Accidents    —  . . . .  7t> 

Defined     72 

Stresses  in    75 

Supports  for   8 

DIMENSIONS  48 

DISPUTES 43 

DOLLY    34 

DRIFTING 25 

DRIFTING  TEST  I'.l 

£ 

ECCENTRICITY   IN    COLUMNS    ..  88 
ELASTICITY,    MODULUS    OF     ...::.     r, 

ELASTIC  LIMIT 2 

For   Cast   iron    5 

For    Steel    r» 

For  Wrought  iron    5 

ELONGATION  2 

ELONGATION,  ULTIMATE 

For   Cast    iron    5 

For    Steel    5 

For  Wrought  iron 5 

ERECTION    43 

EXPANSION,    COEFF.    OF     4,     5 

EXTRAS   48 


II. 


INDEX 


FACING    25 

FACTORS    OF    SAFETY 4,     5 

FIELD   INSPECTION  OF 

CAST     IRON     .  15 

FILLER   PLATES    95 

FINISH     49 

FIRE  ESCAPES    .  .   110 

FLUE     10 

FORGING     ...  26 

FORGING   TEST    24 

FRACTURE  OF 

Cast  iron  14 

Steel    20 

Wrought    iron    17 


GOOSE-NECK    LADDER     .  .   106 

GRILLAGE  BEAMS 82 

GUIDES    FOR    HOISTS    104 

H 

HAND  RAIL   .  .  106 

HANGER    .107 

HARDENING     26 

HARDENING    TEST     23 

HEAD     ROOM  .   108 

HEATING    EFFECTS    26 

HEMATITE     12 

HONEYCOMB    14,     90 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  PIECES 
IMPURITIES  IN  CAST  IRON  . . 
INSPECTION  OF 

Cast    iron     

Wrought  iron   . 
INSPECTOR'S  WORK  . 


55 
14 

15 
17 

57 


LABORATORY    INSPECTION    OF 

CAST     IRON     15 

LADDERS 

Drop    113 

Goose  neck   113 

Scuttle     113 

LIGHT  WEIGHT  1  RON  67 

LIMONITE    12 

M 

MAGNETITE  , 12 

MANGANESE    IN 

Cast    Iron    12,  14 

Steel    20 

MANUFACTURE  OF 

Cast    Iron     12 

Steel    19 

Wrought    iron     1C 

MATERIALS 

Second-hand     58 

MELTING  POINT  OF 

Cast  iron  5 

JSteel    9 

Wrought  iron   » 

MERCHANT   BAR    IT 

MILLING  CAST  COLUMNS i . .  91 

Steel    columns    93 

MILL   INSPECTION   OF 

CAST  IRON 14 

MINIMUM    SPANS     97 

MODULUS    OF    ELASTICITY    ....  3 

MOTTLED  IRON   

MUCK    BAR    1  < 


X 

NEWEL    POST    .  .  106 

NICKEL    STEEL    21 

NOSING    106 

O 

OMISSIONS     48 

OPEN  HEARTH  PROCESS 19 

OVERLOADING     43,  55 

The  derrick    76 

OVERWEIGHT    .  .  46 


PAINTING    43,  52 

Cast   iron    91 

Defective     107 

PHOSPHORUS  IN 

Cast  iron    12,  14 

In  steel 20 

PIERS     80 

PIG    IRON     12 

PLUMBING    COLUMNS    92 

PUDDLING    PROCESS     17 

PULLEYS    IN    DERRICK    77 

PUNCHING    28,  43 

Force     required     11 


QUENCHING   TEST    24 

K 

RATCHET      34 

REAMING      43 

REJECTION    43 

RETAINING  WALLS  80 

RISE     106 

RISER    106 

RIVETED    CONNECTIONS    32 

RIVETERS    33 

RIVETING 

Defined     36 

Faking   40 

Hand     36 

Machine     36 

Shop    25 

Specifications   for    •.  - 

Steel    Columns     93 

Testing    41 

Tools     33 

RIVETS 

Vs.    bolts     37 

Conventional  signs   • 

Defined  30 

Field    37 

Forms  32 

Heating     

Lengths  of 32 

Manufacture    of • 

Material     30 

Shop °< 

ROPES,  DEFECTIVE 76 

RUN    10<i 

RUNG  1M 


SAND   HOLES    90 

SCALES  IN  CAST  IRON  !•> 

SCUTTLE 107 

SEPARATORS     o4,  59 

Defective     61 

SET   DEFINED 3 

SETTING  IRON 54 

SHEAR    DEFINED    1 


INDEX 


TIL 


SHEARING   28 

SHEAR-POLES 

Defined  72 

Stresses  in    75 

SHIMS    FOR   CAST   COLUMNS    ...  91 

SHOP     DRAWINGS     48 

Inspection    of   cast   iron    16 

Inspection  of  pipes    16 

Operations    28 

SHOPWORK     4l> 

Dimensions   for    42 

SHRINKAGE  CRACKS   15 

SILICON    IN 

Cast  iron  12 

Steel    14 

SLAG    12 

SNAP    34 

SPECIFICATIONS 

Finish     42 

General 47 

For    manufacture    42 

Manufacturers'    44 

For    properties     42 

For  quality   of  materials    42 

Riveting    39 

For   weight    42 

SPLICE    PLATES    93 

SPLICES    53 

STAIRWAYS     112 

Definitions l(k> 

Floors  Ill 

Inspection     105 

Railings  Ill 

Standards    106 

STEEL 

Advantages     22 

Bolting  of  columns  92 

Cast     21 

Coeff.    of    expansion    5 

Definition  of 19 

Elastic    limit     5 

Erection    of    92 

Factors  of  safety    5 

Flue 10 

Fractures    of     20 

Inspection     22 

Lengths  of  columns 92 

Manufacture    19 

Medium    45 

Melting   point    5 

Modulus  of  elasticity    5 

Nickel     21 

Properties  19 

Railway     45 

Rivet   45 

Tests   22 

Ultimate  elongation   5 

Ultimate    strength    5 

Weight     of     5 

STORE   FRONTS   57 

STRAIGHTENING 43 

STRAIN 

Defined  1 

Unit   3 

STRAPPING  62 

Defective,- 63 

STRENGTH,  ULTIMATE 5 

STRESS 

Defined     1 

Unit   i 

STRESSES    IX    DERRICKS    75 

In  shear-poles  75 

Internal     15 

Kinds  of   1 

STRINGER    105 

SULPHUR    IN 

Cast    iron    12,  14 


Steel    20 

SWELLS  IN  CAST  IRON   .  16 


TACKLE  .. 

TANKS  !!!.!!.!.*; 

Anchorage     

Bracing     

Capacity    

Gravity     

House   

Location 

Pressure    

Saddles    

TEMPERING     

TEMPLATES    

Defective   

TENSION  DEFINED    

TENSILE   TESTS   FOR 

Cast   iron    

Steel    

Wrought  iron   

TEST  BARS  FOR  CAST  IRON   ... 
TESTING  BASES  .. 

TEST    PIECES    

THICKNESS  OF  CAST  COLUMNS 

TIE     RODS     

TREAD    

TUYERES     . 


ULTIMATE    STRENGTH    FOR 

Cast  iron  

Steel 


Wrought  iron 
UPSETTING   .. 


49 
115 
117 
117 
116 
115 
115 
116 
115 
117 
27 
64 


15 
22 

18 
15 
84 
44 
15 
54 
106 
13 


VARIATIONS    IN    THICKNESS    ..     45 

In   weight    46 

VAULT  FRAMING  103 

VAULTS  .  .  103 


W 

WALL    ANCHORS    .                             .  66 

WARPING  OF  CAST  IRON   15 

WATER    PIPES,    INSPECTION    OF    16 
WEIGHTS    OF 

Cast  iron 5 

Steel 5 

Wrought  iron 5 

WELDING   26 

Test   24 

WINDER    106 

WORKING  STRESS  4 

WORKMANSHIP    43 

WROUGHT  IRON 

Advantages 18 

Beams  58 

Coeff.  of  expansion    5 

Cold  short 17 

Defects    in    17 

Defined  16 

Disadvantages     18 

Elastic   limit    5 

Factors  of  safety    5 

Fracture  of   17 

Manufacture   of    16 

Melting  point 5 

Modulus  of  elasticity   5 

Properties  of  17 

Red  short  17 

Ultimate  elongation   5 

Ultimate  strength   5 


YC   13621 


TA 


308663 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


